Classification and Diagnosis

• What major implications did the study have for the psychiatric profession?

  It caused distrust and cast doubt over the profession.
• What are the potential consequences of misdiagnosis in psychiatry?

  It could lead to denied liberty, delayed treatment, or even suicide.
• What factors affect the validity of psychiatric diagnoses?

  1. Comorbidity
  2. Symptom Overlap
  3. Gender Bias
  4. Culture Bias
• What is comorbidity in the context of psychiatric disorders?

  It is the phenomenon where multiple disorders occur together.
• What percentage of schizophrenia patients also suffer from depression according to Buckey et al.?

  50%
• What percentage of schizophrenia patients also suffer from substance abuse according to Buckey et al.?

  47%
• What percentage of schizophrenia patients also suffer from PTSD according to Buckey et al.?

  29%
• How does comorbidity complicate the diagnosis of schizophrenia?

  It raises questions about the validity of diagnosis and classification.
• What is symptom overlap in psychiatric disorders?

  It refers to shared symptoms between schizophrenia and other disorders.
• Which disorder shares symptoms like hallucinations and delusions with schizophrenia?

  Bipolar Disorder
• What is the impact of misdiagnosis due to symptom overlap?

  It delays correct treatment and increases the risk of suicide.
• What is gender bias in psychiatric diagnosis?

  It is the differential treatment or diagnosis of mental illness based on gender.
• According to Longenecker (2010), which gender has been diagnosed more with schizophrenia since the 1980s?

  Men
• Why might female patients with schizophrenia be under-diagnosed?

  They may function better in society, leading to bias in diagnosis.
• What is culture bias in psychiatric diagnosis?

  It is when one culture is over or under diagnosed with a certain disorder.
• According to Cochrane (1977), how much more likely are people of Afro-Caribbean heritage to be diagnosed with schizophrenia compared to white people in Britain?

  7 times more likely
• What did the WHO find regarding schizophrenia rates across different regions?

  They found that rates are similar across Europe, America, Africa, and Asia.
• How can cultural differences in communication affect psychiatric diagnosis?

  Cultural differences may lead to misinterpretation of patient responses.
• What is a common cultural expression that may be misinterpreted as a symptom of schizophrenia?

  Hearing voices as a normal expression of grief.
• What did Escobar (2012) suggest about the diagnosis of black patients?

  Psychiatrists may over-interpret symptoms and mistrust their honesty.
• What percentage of the population is affected by schizophrenia?

  1%
• What are the two types of symptoms of schizophrenia?

  • Positive symptoms: Excess in behaviors, thoughts, feelings.
  • Negative symptoms: Deficits in behaviors, thoughts, feelings.
• What are delusions in the context of schizophrenia?

  Strongly held false beliefs despite disconfirming evidence.
• What are hallucinations?

  Perceptions of something not actually present, often auditory.
• What is avolition?

  Difficulty in initiating or maintaining goal-directed behaviors.
• What is speech poverty?

  Lessening of speech quality and fluency, with short replies.
• What is emotional disturbance in schizophrenia?

  Inappropriate emotional responses or lack of reaction to events.
• What is disorganized speech?

  Speech that is incoherent or loosely associated, impairing communication.
• What are the two manuals used to diagnose schizophrenia?

  • DSM-5: Used in the UK and USA, requires at least 2 symptoms, 1 must be positive.
  • ICD-10: Used worldwide, requires 1 positive or 2 negative symptoms.
• What are the classifications of schizophrenia according to ICD-10?

  1. Paranoid
  2. Disorganised
  3. Catatonic
• What is reliability in psychiatric diagnosis?

  It measures the consistency of diagnoses across different professionals.
• What did Cheniaux et al. (2009) find regarding the reliability of schizophrenia diagnosis?

  There were significant discrepancies between two psychiatrists' diagnoses.
• What does a higher concordance rate indicate in psychiatric diagnosis?

  It indicates better reliability among mental health professionals.
• What is validity in psychiatric diagnosis?

  It measures the accuracy of diagnosing the correct disorder.
• What was the aim of Rosenhan's study in 1973?

  To test the reliability of psychiatric labels and gather data on mental hospitals.
• What did Rosenhan and his associates do to gain admission to a mental hospital?

  They faked symptoms of mental illness to be admitted.
• What was the outcome of Rosenhan's study regarding staff recognition of sanity?

  None of the staff recognized that the pseudopatients were sane.
• What did the psychiatric institution claim after Rosenhan's study?

  They claimed they could identify fakes, but none were sent.
• What does Rosenhan's study highlight about psychiatric diagnosis?

  It highlights the poor validity and the prevalence of misdiagnosis.