Issues and Debates

• What are the different levels of explanation used in psychology?

  Social-cultural context, Psychological level, Physiological level, Neurochemical level
• What does ethnocentrism involve?

  Evaluating other cultures according to the customs and standards of your own culture
• What is reductionism in psychology?

  The view that behaviour is better explained by breaking it down into simpler parts
• What is a strength of holism in psychology?

  Holism can explain aspects of social behaviour that reductionism cannot
• How did holism help understand behaviours in the Stanford Prison Study?

  By observing interactions between prisoners and guards to understand deindividuation
• What is an example of socially sensitive research with ethical implications?

  Goddard's research on IQ leading to eugenic procedures
• Compare the idiographic and nomothetic approaches in psychology.

  • Idiographic: Focuses on individual experiences (e.g., Humanistic and Psychodynamic approaches)
  • Nomothetic: Generalizes findings across groups (e.g., Biological and Behaviourist approaches)
• What does cultural relativism mean?

  Norms, values, and behaviours are culturally specific and should be evaluated in context
• What is meant by universality in psychology?

  Conclusions that can be applied to everyone regardless of culture or time
• What is the difference between the emic and etic approaches?

  Emic involves studying within a culture, while etic applies findings across cultures
• What is determinism in psychology?

  The belief that behaviour is determined by forces outside an individual's control
• What is the difference between hard determinism and soft determinism?

  Hard determinism states no control over life, while soft determinism allows some control
• What does free will refer to in psychology?

  The ability to act at one's own discretion without external influences
• What are the three types of determinism?

  • Biological: Behaviour determined by genetics
  • Environmental: Behaviour influenced by external factors
  • Psychic: Behaviour shaped by childhood experiences and innate drives
• Which approaches support the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate?

  Behaviourist, Humanistic, Social Learning Theory, and Psychodynamic approaches
• What is the difference between nativists and empiricists?

  Nativists believe characteristics are hereditary, while empiricists believe they result from environment
• What is androcentrism in psychology?

  Judging behaviour based on male standards, leading to female behaviour being seen as abnormal
• What is a problem associated with beta bias in psychological research?

  It can lead to invalid theories by minimizing gender differences
• What is a consequence of gender bias in psychological research?

  It can justify denying women opportunities in the workplace and society
• What is gender bias?

  The differential treatment or representation of men and women based on stereotypes rather than real differences.
• What is alpha bias?

  A tendency to exaggerate differences between men and women, suggesting real and enduring differences.
• What are the consequences of alpha bias?

  Theories may devalue one gender in comparison to the other, typically devaluing women.
• What are examples of alpha bias in psychology?

  1. Psychodynamic explanations suggest females are less moral than males due to lack of castration anxiety.
  2. Wilson’s theory claims promiscuous females go against their nature, while males are genetically determined.
  3. Schizophrenia diagnosed more in men, masking symptoms in women due to their ability to maintain relationships.
• What is androcentrism?

  The consequence of beta bias where behavior is compared according to a 'male' standard.
• How has PMS been criticized in terms of androcentrism?

  PMS is seen as a social construction that trivializes female emotion, particularly anger.
• What is beta bias?

  A tendency to ignore or minimize differences between men and women in psychological theories.
• What are examples of beta bias in psychology?

  1. Fight or flight response research used only male mice, generalizing results to females.
  2. Kohlberg’s moral reasoning theory was based solely on American males, generalizing to both genders.
• What is the aim of universality in psychology?

  To develop theories that apply to all people, regardless of their differences.
• What are the evaluations of gender bias in psychology?

  • Feminist psychology argues that stereotypes contribute more to perceived differences than biological explanations.
  • Bias in research methods can lead to differences found not being due to gender but to the methods used.
  • Laboratory experiments may reflect institutionalized sexism in psychology.
  • Reverse alpha bias emphasizes women's strengths in learning.
  • Avoiding beta bias can lead to greater access for women but may overlook their special needs.
  • Assumptions about gender need to be challenged.
• What is cultural bias?

  The tendency to judge all cultures and individuals based on one's own cultural assumptions.
• What is cultural relativism?

  The view that behavior and morals cannot be judged properly without considering the culture in which they originate.
• What are examples of cultural bias in research?

  • Milgram’s study showed different obedience rates across cultures, indicating cultural specificity.
  • Alpha bias can lead to overlooking universals in behavior.
  • Beta bias can result in misdiagnosing mental disorders across cultures.
• What is ethnocentrism?

  The tendency to evaluate other cultures using the standards of one's own culture.
• What is the emic-etic distinction?

  The emic approach emphasizes cultural uniqueness, while the etic approach seeks universal aspects of behavior.
• What are the evaluations of cultural bias in psychology?

  • Bias in research methods shows a predominance of Western studies.
  • Cultural bias can lead to stereotyping and discrimination.
  • Some behaviors are universally recognized despite cultural differences.
  • Increased opportunities for cross-cultural research reduce ethnocentrism.
• What is determinism in psychology?

  The belief that behavior is controlled by external or internal factors beyond an individual's control.
• What is biological determinism?

  The view that behavior is caused by internal biological forces beyond our control.
• What is environmental determinism?

  The belief that behavior is caused by previous experiences through conditioning.
• What is psychic determination?

  Freud's theory that adult behavior is determined by innate drives and early experiences.
• What is free will in psychology?

  The power of individuals to make choices about their behavior without external control.