Conflict & Tension

• Armistice (end of WW1)

  • Signed 11th November 1918
  • Germany agreed to harsh conditions (e.g. withdrawing troops from occupied territories and surrendering military equipment)
  • Temporary agreement to stop fighting while a peace treaty was negotiated
  • Ended fighting in WWI but left Germany humiliated and economically weakened
• Treaty of Versailles - what were the allies reactions?

  • France -> felt the treaty wasn’t harsh enough
  • USA -> criticized the treaty for being too harsh and refused to sign it
  • UK -> public welcomed the treaty, but Lloyd George worried it was too harsh
  • Germany -> felt humiliated by the treaty and struggled with reparations, they called the treaty a 'Diktat' (imposed peace)
• When and where was the Treaty of Versailles signed?

  signed 28th June 1919 at the Palace of Versailles
• Treaty of Versailles - what were the territorial losses?

  • Germany lost 13% of its European territory and all overseas colonies:
  • Alsace-Lorraine -> returned to France
  • Polish corridor -> given to Poland
  • Saar -> League of Nations gained control for 15 years
  • Colonies -> Divided among Britain, France, and other Allies as mandates
• Treaty of Versailles - what were the military restrictions?

  • Army limited -> Maximum of 100,000 troops, no conscription
  • Navy -> Limited to 6 battleships; no submarines
  • Air Force -> Banned
  • Rhineland -> Demilitarized to act as a buffer between Germany and France
• Treaty of Versailles - reparations and war guilt?

  • Reparations -> set at £6.6 billion in 1921
  • Article 231 (War Guilt Clause) -> Germany was forced to accept full blame for starting the war, justifying reparations and restrictions
• Who were the Big Three and what were their aims?


  • Woodrow Wilson -> wanted a fair peace, proposed the Fourteen Points and the League of Nations
  • David Lloyd George -> appeased British public by supporting harsh terms but wanted to avoid punishing Germany too much to maintain trade, also predicted WW2
  • George Clemenceau -> Sought revenge, security, and to weaken Germany permanently
• Treaty of Versailles - what were the positives and negatives?

  Positives:

  • Established the Leage of Nations
  • Ended WWI

  Negatives:

  • Germany was resentful which led to political instability and the rise of extremism
  • Failed to satisfy everyone equally
• What was the League of Nations?

  • Established in 1920 as part of the Treaty of Versailles
  • Aimed to promote peace, prevent war, and encourage disarmament
  • Key members were Britain and France
  • The USA never joined, weakening its authority
  • Germany joined in 1926 but left in 1933 (wasn't allowed to join when it was first established)
• What was the structure of the Leage of Nations?

  • Assembly -> representatives from all member nations.
  • Council -> smaller group of permanent members (e.g. Britain, France) and temporary members
  • Secretariat -> handled administration
  • Commissions -> dealt with specific issues like disarmament and health
• League of Nations - sucsesses?

  • Resolved disputes, such as the Aaland Islands (1921) and Upper Silesia (1921)
  • Managed refugee crises and improved working conditions through the International Labour Organisation
  • Controlled health issues like malaria
• Leage of Nations - weaknesses?

  • Lacked a standing army, relying on member nations to enforce decisions
  • Key powers like the USA, Germany (until 1926), and the USSR were absent
  • Members often prioritized national interests over League goals
• What were Hitler's aims in his foreign policy?

  • Overturn the Treaty of Versailles
  • Unite all German speaking people under one Reich
  • Expand eastwards (Lebensraum) for living space
  • Defeat communism
• Rearmament?

  • Began secretly in 1933 and publicly from 1935
  • Introduced conscription in 1935, violating the Treaty of Versailles
  • Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935), allowing Germany to build a navy.
• The Rhineland (1936)

  • German troops reoccupied the demilitarized Rhineland
  • France did not respond due to political instability and lack of British support
  • Marked a significant violation of the Treaty of Versailles
  • Hitler grew in confidence and power
• Anschluss (1938)

  • Germany annexed Austria in March 1938
  • Hitler pressured Austria’s Chancellor Schuschnigg to hold a plebiscite
  • German troops entered Austria, and a rigged vote showed overwhelming support for Anschluss
• Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939)

  • Signed in August 1939 between Germany and the USSR
  • Agreement to avoid war with each other and secretly divide Poland
  • Enabled Hitler to invade Poland without fear of a Soviet attack
• Outbreak of WW2

  • Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939
  • Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939
  • The failure of appeasement and the League of Nations contributed to the war’s outbreak
• The Sudeten Crisis (1938)

  • Hitler demanded the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia, claiming mistreatment of German speakers
  • Unrest in the region, stirred by Hitler, justified his intervention
  • Britain and France, wanting to avoid war, agreed to the Munich Agreement on 30th September 1938, giving the Sudetenland to Germany without consulting Czechoslovakia
  • Hitler promised no further territorial demands but broke this in March 1939 by invading the rest of Czechoslovakia, exposing the failure of appeasement
• Abyssinian Crisis (1935-1936)

  Italy, led by Mussolini, invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935, aiming to expand its empire

  The League of Nations condemned the invasion and imposed limited sanctions, but they excluded key resources like oil

  Britain and France secretly negotiated the Hoare-Laval pact, which would have given Italy part of Abyssinia in exchange for peace, but this was leaked and caused outrage

  Italy completed the invasion in 1936, and the league's failure to act effectively weakened its authority and credibility
• The Rise of Fascism and Nazism

  • Mussolini rose to power in Italy in 1922, establishing a fascist regime focused on militarism, nationalism, and authoritarian rule
  • Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in 1933, creating a Nazi regime that promoted similar ideologies, including extreme nationalism, anti-communism, and anti-Semitism
  • Both leaders used propaganda, violence, and political maneuvering to consolidate their power and suppress opposition
• The Failure of the League of Nations

  • The League was meant to prevent wars and maintain peace, but it was weak and lacked authority
  • The absence of key powers, such as the USA and the USSR, weakened its influence
  • The League failed to prevent Japan’s invasion of Manchuria, Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia, and Germany’s rearmament and expansion
  • Sanctions were often ineffective, and the League could not stop the aggression of fascist states
• The Policy of Appeasement

  • Appeasement was the policy of giving in to some of Hitler’s demands to avoid war
  • Britain and France allowed Germany to reoccupy the Rhineland in 1936 and gave in to the Sudetenland demands at Munich in 1938
  • The Munich Agreement (1938) allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland in exchange for Hitler’s promise of no further territorial expansion, which was later broken
  • The policy is often criticized for enabling Hitler to grow stronger and ultimately leading to WW2
• Economic Factors

  • The Great Depression, which began in 1929, led to high unemployment, economic hardship, and instability in many countries
  • The economic crisis helped extremist political movements (e.g. Fascism and Communism) gain support, as people were looking for radical solutions
  • In Germany, the depression contributed to the rise of Hitler, as his promises of economic recovery resonated with the suffering population
• What was the Manchurian crisis (1931 - 1933)

  • Japan used a railway explosion in Manchuria as an excuse to invade the region, which was rich in resources
  • By the end of 1931, Japan had taken control of most of Manchuria and established the puppet state of Manchukuo in 1932
  • The League of Nations condemned the invasion but failed to take effective action, and Japan withdrew from the League in 1933
  • Exposed the League’s weakness in handling aggression