Gender

• What is the difference between sex and gender?

  Sex refers to biological differences, while gender refers to psychological and behavioral traits.
• What is a sexual stereotype?

  A sexual stereotype is a culturally shared set of expectations for male and female behavior.
• What does androgyny mean?

  Androgyny refers to having a balanced mixture of both masculine and feminine traits.
• What is the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)?

  • A measure of androgyny
  • Participants rate themselves on a seven-point scale
  • Includes 60 characteristics or traits
  • Scores on masculinity and femininity dimensions
• What traits are included in the BSRI for masculinity and femininity?

  The BSRI includes 20 masculine traits like aggressive and independent, and 20 feminine traits like warm and cheerful.
• What did Bem argue about androgynous individuals?

  Bem argued that androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy than those with imbalanced traits.
• What percentage of males and females were found to be androgynous in Bem's study?

  24% of males and 27% of females were found to be androgynous.
• What is the undifferentiated type in the BSRI?

  The undifferentiated type identifies individuals with few masculine or feminine traits.
• How can awareness of gender identity reduce gender stereotyping?

  Awareness of gender identity as separate from sex can help individuals challenge stereotypes.
• What did Smith and Lloyd find in their 1987 study regarding gender stereotypes?

  They found that adults gave toys according to sex role stereotypes when playing with babies dressed as the opposite sex.
• What determines biological sex according to the study material?

  The 23rd chromosome pair determines biological sex, with XX being female and XY being male.
• What role do testes play in biological sex determination?

  Testes develop due to the Y chromosome and produce androgens, influencing male sex characteristics.
• How do hormones influence gender identity and behavior?

  Hormones influence biological development and can affect gender identity and gendered behavior.
• What is testosterone linked to in males?

  Testosterone is linked to the development of male genitals and aggressive behavior.
• What is the role of estrogen in females?

  Estrogen regulates menstruation and is linked to female secondary sexual characteristics.
• What is oxytocin known as?

  Oxytocin is known as the love hormone and promotes pair bonding.
• What did Van Bechtel find regarding gender identity in twins?

  Van Bechtel found that 70% of the variance in gender identity was linked to genetics in twins.
• What is Klinefelter syndrome?

  Klinefelter syndrome is a condition affecting biological males with an XXY chromosome pattern.
• What are some physical characteristics of Klinefelter syndrome?

  Physical characteristics include tall stature, small testes, and lack of facial hair.
• What is Turner syndrome?

  Turner syndrome is a condition affecting biological females with an X0 chromosome pattern.
• What are some psychological characteristics of Turner syndrome?

  Psychological characteristics include high verbal skills but low visual ability.
• What is problematic about using research on atypical sex chromosome patterns to make assumptions about typical development?

  It is problematic because individuals with atypical patterns are statistically rare and may have unique experiences.
• What are the stages of cognitive gender development according to Kohlberg's theory?

  1. Gender Identity (2-3 years): Awareness of own gender.
  2. Gender Stability (4-5 years): Awareness of fixed gender over time.
  3. Gender Consistency (over 5 years): Recognition of consistent gender despite context.
• What did Smith and Frey find regarding children's behavior in the consistency stage?

  They found that children in the consistency stage preferred same-sex role models in videos.
• What did Martin and Little's study reveal about children's understanding of gender?

  They showed that children as young as three had strong sex preferences for toys and clothes.
• What does gender schema theory suggest about children's development of gender schemas?

  Gender schema theory suggests children develop schemas around two years old, focusing on their in-group.
• What are gender schemas?

  Gender schemas are mental representations of stereotypical male and female behaviors.
• What did Martin and Haverson's study reveal about children's gender schemas?

  They found that children switched genders of people shown in activities to match gendered behavior.
• What did Alexander and Hines find regarding vervet monkeys and gendered objects?

  They found that vervet monkeys preferred masculine toys if male and feminine toys if female.
• What are the key concepts of psychodynamic theory in gender development?

  • Gender development occurs at the phallic stage (4-5 years).
  • Resolution of the Oedipus complex for boys.
  • Resolution of the Electra complex for girls.
  • Identification with the same-sex parent.
• What is the Oedipus complex?

  The Oedipus complex is when boys develop sexual feelings towards their mother and see their father as a rival.
• What did Little Hans' case study reveal about Freud's theory?

  Little Hans' fear of horses was interpreted as castration anxiety related to his father.
• What is the Electra complex?

  The Electra complex is when girls experience penis envy and compete with their mother for their father's attention.
• What are some criticisms of Freud's psychodynamic theory?

  Criticisms include lack of scientific rigor, subjectivity, and inability to test unconscious processes.
• What is gender dysphoria?

  Gender dysphoria is psychological distress due to a mismatch between assigned sex at birth and gender identity.
• one strength of BSRI is it appears to be valid and reliable. The traits were rated by 50 males and 50 females, and the most common for each were categorised
• However one weakness of BSRI is it seems to lack temporal validity. Bems scale was based on stereotypes of the 1970s, so can be argued to be less valid today
• Another limitation to BSRI is it is a self report, which has issues with social desiribility bias and a subjective scoring system
• One strength of role of role of chromosomes and hormones is supporting research. Van Leengoed gave female rats an injection to inhibit oxytocin production. These rats lacked maternal instincts. Once the injection effects wore off, the rats went back to normal, suggesting hormones play an important role
• One weakness of the role of hormones and chromosomes is androgen insensitivity syndrome, which consists of individuals that have an XY chromosome pattern, but are unresponsive to testosterone. They are usually assigned female at birth and often stay with a female gender identity even once they find out about the chromosomal differences, suggesting society has a wider impact on gender identity than chromosomes