Revision Flashcards

• The behaviourist approach assumes that:

  • everyone is born as a 'blank slate' which life writes upon (Watson, 1930)
  • all behaviour is learned from the environment e.g. upbringing, neighbourhood, peers, education
• BA assumes that:

  • behaviour can be understood via a stimulus-response approach (classical conditioning)
  • the mechanisms of reward and reinforcement(operant conditioning)
• BA Assumes that:

  • Behaviours which can be directly observed only can be measured.
  • Imitation of specific aggressive behaviours can be observed and measured.
  • Memory cannot be measured as it cannot be directly observed
• BA assumes that

  • Lab-based, scientific methods are the only way that behaviour can be studied
  • Animal research may be used as a basis for understanding human behaviour
• BA assumes that:

  • Repeated behaviours become internalised and automatic e.g. hearing the bell ring for the end of the lesson triggers packing away and moving to the next lesson without any real thought involved 
• BA assumes that:

  • Classical conditioning and operant conditioning underpin the principles of behaviourism
• Classical Conditioning (CC) is learning via association and is one of the core assumptions of the behaviourist approach
• CC occurs when a neutral stimulus is substituted for the original unconditioned stimulus to produce a conditioned response 
• An unconditioned stimulus produces a natural, unforced response i.e. no animal or human has to learn how to feel hunger
• The mechanisms of CC are as follows:

  • The unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is the starting point
  • The UCS is a stimulus that produces an unconditioned response (UCR): 
  • Food is an UCS as it is a natural, physiological reflex
  • The UCR to food being presented is to salivate/feel hungry
• • The UCS is paired with a neutral stimulus (NS):
  • One which, ordinarily and on its own, does not produce a strong response (neither positive nor negative) e.g. a tone being sounded
• • When the UCS is paired with the NS the response continues to be the UCR, as a result of the UCS
• • After repeated pairings, the NS is presented on its own and elicits the UCR e.g. salivation
• • The NS has thus become the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation has become the conditioned response (CR)
• • When the CS is presented it will result in the CR
  • The CR is generally not as strong as the UCR
  • After some time the NS must be paired with the UCS again otherwise extinction will occur
• The mechanisms of classical conditioning were discovered accidentally by Pavlov (1897), a physiologist who was measuring the volume of specific enzymes in dog saliva
• • Pavlov had been working with dogs in his lab: 
  • The dogs were attached to an apparatus which held them in place and collected their saliva
• Pavlov noticed that the dogs began to salivate before they saw or smelt their food

  • They began to salivate when they heard the footsteps of the lab assistants approaching (the dogs had learned that these footsteps = food!)
• • Pavlov was astounded by this discovery as he believed the dogs should only salivate when presented with the UCS - food - rather than an NS (footsteps)
• Pavlov set up the following procedure:

  • The dog is given food (UCS)
  • The dog salivates when it sees and smells the food (UCR)
  • A bell is sounded (NS) every time the dog is given food (UCS)
  • A bell is sounded every time the food is presented (the pairing of NS and UCS)
  • After repeated pairings, the dog salivates when it hears the bell
  • The bell has become the CS
  • The dog salivating to the sound of the bell has become the CR
  • The dog continues to salivate to the bell however when Pavlov stopped pairing the bell and the food he found that the CR  decreased and gradually disappeared (extinction)
• Strengths of Pavlov's Research

  • The use of scientific methods (e.g. lab experiments) 
  • Reliability is based on the use of a testable hypothesis
  • Hypothesis testing takes place in controlled conditions using standardised, replicable procedures
  • The above measures produce results which should show consistency over time
  • Thus, research into behaviourism has good reliability
  • Behaviourism takes a nomothetic approach which is a strength as it seeks to establish general laws of behaviour which can be applied universally to all people
• Limitations of Pavlov's Research

  • Whilst classical conditioning may explain some forms of behaviour, it cannot explain all behaviour, e.g.
  • spontaneous e.g. dyeing your hair bright blue
  • resisting conditioning e.g. rejecting your religion after being raised in a a strict religious environment
  • This means that classical conditioning has limited external validity
  • Behaviourism is highly deterministic (environmental)
  • The assumption is that people are controlled by environmental forces 
  • This assumption negates the role of free will in behaviour which reduces the usefulness of the approach
• Operant conditioning (OC) is learning via consequences

  • Along with classical conditioning, it is one of the core assumptions which underpin the behaviourist approach
• Where classical conditioning emphasises the stimulus-response mechanism of learned behaviour, OC emphasises the role of reward and reinforcement in behaviour
• Consequences are learned via three types of direct reinforcement: Positive, Negative and Punishment
• Positive reinforcement 

  • Performing a behaviour to experience the positive consequences e.g. completing homework to gain praise from the teacher 
• Negative reinforcement

  • Performing a behaviour to avoid unpleasant consequences e.g. completing homework to prevent being given a detention
• Punishment

  • A type of deterrent that can be positive/direct e.g. told off by the teacher 
  • A deterrent can also be negative/indirect e.g.not being allowed to attend a party 
• The consequence of the performed behaviour is known as the reinforcer e.g. 

  • praise from the teacher is a positive reinforcer
  • a detention is a negative reinforcer
• B.F. Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate upon their environment (hence, 'operant conditioning')
• Skinner identified three types of operant:

  Neutral operants, Reinforcers, Punishers
• Neutral operants

  • Environmental forces that neither increase nor decrease the repetition of a specific behaviour 
• Reinforcers

  • Environmental forces that increase the repetition of a specific behaviour 
  • A positive reinforcer is a behaviour which is repeated to enjoy the pleasant consequences
  • A negative reinforcer is a behaviour which is repeated to avoid unpleasant consequences
• Punishers

  • Environmental forces that decrease the repetition of a specific behaviour
• Skinner set up a series of experiments to determine how animals learn from the consequences of their actions, dependent upon the specific operants he implemented
• Skinner devised a box known as the 'Skinner Box' 

  • Skinner placed one rat at a time inside the box
  • Each box contained different stimuli, including a lever that released food (the rat's reward) and an electroplated floor (the rat's punishment)
• Positive reinforcement was demonstrated by placing a hungry rat in the box

  • The box contained a lever which the rat (initially) accidentally triggered as it explored the box
  • Upon triggering the lever a food pellet was delivered (reward)
  • The rats quickly learned (it only took them a few tries) to go straight to the lever 
  • The consequence/reward (food) of pressing the lever saw them repeating the action over and over again
• Negative reinforcement was demonstrated by placing a rat in the box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric shock (punishment)

  • The rat (initially) accidentally triggered the lever as it explored the box
  • Upon triggering the lever the electric current was switched off (unpleasant sensations stopped)
  • The rats quickly learned to trigger the lever immediately as soon as they were placed in the box
  • The consequence/reward of escaping the electric shock saw them repeating the action over and over again
• In another variation, the rats learned to avoid the electric shock (punishment) by pressing the lever when the light came on (avoiding punishment = negative reinforcement)
• Strengths of OC

  OC has good application to the  maintenance of phobias

  • Someone with social phobia uses avoidance to stay away from any events involving people, socialising etc.
  • The use of avoidance is an example of  negative reinforcement i.e. taking steps to keep away from large gatherings of people
  • The more the avoidance is repeated the more the phobic person is rewarded with feelings of relief and security