kantian ethics

• What is a hypothetical imperative?


  It is no required of us, and we must do it to achieve a particular goal.

  E.g we must study and work hard to achieve an A*
• What is a categorical imperative? 


  That which our reason tells us must always be done
• What is the first categorical imperative? 


  Universalisation - You should only do what you are willing for everyone to do.

  Quote - "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."

  Examples - Deception, theft, suicide, laziness, cruelty to animals (link Mill).
• What is the second categorical imperative? 


  Not using people as a means to an end. "ends in themselves". - Don't use people to get what you initially want. Respect and value others.
• What is the third categorical imperative?


  Kingdom of ends - A place where we both treat others and ourselves as a universally ideally possible, and don't use people as ends to a mean.

  Is an ideal, metaphysical realm, where we all act as if our actions are establishing the laws for this realm.
• What is a postulate? 


  What we accept to be true, and have to assume to be true. This is so we can have a basis of reasoning the ethical theory 'kantian ethics'.
• What are the three postulates according to Kant?

  Free will, immortality, existence of God
• Why did Kant believe free will is essential for ethics?

  Without free will, ethics would be pointless
• What does Kant mean by 'summum bonum'?

  It refers to the highest good
• Why did Kant argue for the immortality of the soul?

  To ensure justice in the afterlife
• How does Kant connect the existence of God to ethics?

  God rewards those who follow categorical imperatives
• What attributes did Kant assign to God?

  Omnipotent, omnipresent, omnibenevolent
• What is the significance of life being unjust according to Kant?

  It necessitates the belief in an afterlife
• How does Kant's view of ethics relate to the concept of justice?

  Ethics must be just for them to work
• What implications does Kant's belief in free will have on moral responsibility?


  It implies we are responsible for our actions
• What are some non-specific objections to kantian ethics?


  -Consequences

  -Inflexible

  -Lack of motivation to perform 'duty' if it feels irrational

  -Moral Law - is there objective morality? - Meta ethics - can we define terms - if so, how? 

  -A priori - We work out our duty a priori. Surely we need to refer to experience to work out what is right?

  -Clash in duties - furthering this, no hierarchy of duties

  -Unrealistic - we cannot assume everyone will follow this ethical theory

  -Every situation is unique - should be relativist, not absolutist
• Go in depth/examples for non-specific objections to Kantian ethics

  1. Consequences - There are some occasions when consequences are so severe that many think it is better to break a rule than allow awful things to happen.
  2. Inflexible - You should be able to break an unhelpful rule if the individual circumstances warrant it.
  3. Lack of motivation - Realising that something is irrational (like illegally downloading music, for example) doesn't give any motivation to do the right thing.
• Go in depth/examples for non-specific objections to Kantian ethics(p2)

  1. Moral Law - Some philosophers question the existence of the moral law. Why should we believe that there is objective morality? - meta ethics - can we define terms - if so, how? 
  2. A priori - Some have criticised the claim that we work out our duty a priori. Surely we need to refer to experience to work out what is right, particularly in modern medical ethics.
• Go in depth/examples for non-specific objections to Kantian ethics(p3)


  1. Difficulty forming maxims - SS (Nazis)  ask if you have Jews hiding in your attack. Which maxim are you universalising? "Do not tell lies" or "Do not expose others to violence"?
  2. Unrealistic - Kant asks us to follow maxims as if they were universal rules, but just because we act this way, it doesn't mean others will.
  3. Every situation is unique - Universal rules aren't helpful in the real world where every situation is different. If no two situations are the same, morality should be relativist not absolutist.
• What would Bentham say about kantian ethics (crit)


  Kant was unforgiving- Kant believed in retributive justice, 'an eye for an eye'. It doesn't allow for mercy.

  Bentham believed punishment should be rehabilitative - that it should make things better rather than just get revenge.
• What would Mill say about kantian ethics(crit)?


  Anthropocentric - According to Kant, non-human animals (and certainly any non-rational creatures) have no intrinsic value. Many environmentalists see this as dangerous and wrong. Mill was an animal libertarian, and advocated for animal rights. 
• What would Ross say about kantian ethics (crit)?


  Individual duties cannot be absolute

  Sometimes we have a duty to the wider picture. For example, sometimes we have a duty to break a promise (this interlinks with duties clashing - Sartre agree).
• What would Sartre say about kantian ethics (crit)?


  Conflicting duty -

  Sartre described a pupil torn between looking after his mother in France or going to England to fight with the Free French Forces.

  "I find myself drawn into a vicious circle." Which of the duties do I follow?
• Outline the shopkeeper example 


  Shopkeeper is honest in his dealings.

  He could do it because it's good for the business and keeps customers coming back, earns their trust etc..

  However, he is should do it because it is the right thing to do. 'duty for duty's sake'.
• Why is the churchill example a good reason duty cannot and should not always be followed?

  Absolutes don't allow for flexibility - sometimes bad actions have to be followed for the greater good/best outcome.

  Churchill example - made a decision during WW2 that sacrificed people (germans dropped bomb on loads of people).

  Despite this, it meant that the germans didn't find out we cracked the enigma code, and as a result, the war finished 2 years earlier. This ultimately saved more lives.
• What are some non-specific strengths of kantian ethics? 


  Not consequentialist - Does justify doing a bad act, for a good outcome/consequence.

  Universal - moral laws that can be applied regardless of cultural differences or individual situations.

  Clear - His theory gives a system simple enough for a child to understand. (universalism widely taught to children).

  Autonomy - Respect for human dignity and responsibility. Rational - Emotions don't sway the rules, it is a pure rational theory.
• What are some non-specific strengths to kantian ethics? (p2) 


  Human Rights - Provides a basis for Human rights.

  Equality and Justice - Kant's theory provides foundations for modern day concepts of justice and equality.

  International Law - Kantian ethics underpins most UK laws. (e.g euthanasia example - doesn't matter about intention, the act itself was most important - didn't follow duty).
• What are some non-specific strengths of kantian ethics? (p3)


  Reliable - A system of moral rules where everyone knows their obligations. (legal system would collapse if laws were not absolutist).

  Authority - It doesn't make sense to say we ought to break promises. - Kant makes logical sense.

  Duty - Acting out of compassion (non-duty based) can lead to making bad choices out of love. Acting out of duty is always right.
• Summum Bonum meaning

  The highest good, but it may not receive it in this life and it may be recieved in the afterlife
• Eudaimonia meaning 


  Good spirit (literal) - Human flourishing