Bottom-Up A03

• Evidence supports investigative psychology


  Canter and Heritage conducted content analysis of 66 sexual assault cases. Data examined using the statistical technique 'smallest space analysis'.
• Findings of Canter and Heritage study (Evidence supports investigative psychology)


  Several characteristics identified as common: impersonal language and lack of reaction to victim. Human offenders' behaviour change over a series of offences or whether they are committed by same person. Supports usefulness of investigative psychology as it shows how statistical technique can be applied.
• Smallest space analysis

  A computer program that identifies correlations across patterns of behaviour
• Evidence supports geographical profiling


  Lundrigan and Canter collated information from 120 murder cases involving serial killers in USA. Smallest space analysis revealed spatial consistency in the behaviour of killers.
• Lundrigan and Canter findings (Evidence supports geographical profiling)


  Location of each body disposal site was in a different from previous sites creating a 'centre of gravity'. The effect was more noticeable for offenders who travelled short distances (marauders). Supports Canter's claim that spatial information is a key factor in determining base of an offender.
• Scientific basis


  Canter argues that bottom up is more objective and scientific because its rooted in evidence. Investigators are able to get helpful insights quickly with the use of AI and also help with suspect interviewing and court material examinations. This supports its utility in all aspects of the judicial process. Real life application.
• Wider application


  Bottom-up can be applied to a range of crimes, especially spatial consistency. Techniques like smallest space can be used in investigation of crimes like burglary and theft as well as more serious offences like murder and rape.
• Mixed results for profiling

  There have been significant failures and studies examining the effectiveness of offender profiling producing mixed results.
• Copson et al (Mixed results for profiling)


  Copson surveyed 48 police forces and found that profiler advice was 'useful' in 83% of cases but only led to 3% of correct identification.
• Koscsis et al (Mixed results for profiling)


  Kocsis et al found that chemistry students could put together a better profile than senior detectives