Approaches

• Introspection 


  The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
• Psychology 


  The scientific study of the mind, behaviour and experience.
• Science 


  A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
• Wundt’s lab 


  In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychological enquiry in a little town called Leipzig in Germany. Wundt's work is significant because it marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its broader philosophical roots. Wundt's aim was to try to analyse the nature of human consciousness, and thus represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions. His pioneering method became known as introspection.
• Wundt’s standardised procedures

  One of Wundt's main objectives was to try and develop theories about mental processes, such as language and perception. He and his co-workers recorded their experiences of various stimuli they were presented with, such as different objects or sounds. They would divide their observations into three categories: thoughts, images and sensations. For instance, participants might be given a ticking metronome and they would report their thoughts, images and sensations.
• Structuralism 


  Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way is called structuralism. The stimuli that Wundt and his co-workers experienced were always presented in the same order and the same instructions were issued to all participants.
• Strength’s of Wundt’s research

  One strength of Wundt's work is that some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled (i.e. scientific). All introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab, ensuring that possible extraneous variables were not a factor. As described on the left, procedures and instructions were carefully standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way. This suggests that Wundt's research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in psychology, such as the behaviourist approach.
• Limitations of Wundt’s research 


  One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt's research would be considered unscientific today. Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. Such data is subjective. Also participants may have hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour' from such data. And general laws are used to predict future behaviour, one of the aims of science. This suggests that some of Wundt's early efforts to study the mind were flawed and would not meet the criteria of scientific enquiry.
• Behaviourist (behavioural) approach 


  A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning.
• Classical conditioning 


  Learning by association. Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together - an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a new 'neutral' stimulus (NS). The neutral stimulus eventually produces the same response that was first produced by the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus alone.
• Operant conditioning 


  A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour include reinforcement (positive or negative) and punishment.
• Reinforcement 


  A consequence of behaviour that increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated. Can be positive or negative.
• Behaviourist approach- assumptions 


  The behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed and measured. It is not concerned with investigating mental processes of the mind because these were seen as irrelevant. Early behaviourists such as John B. Watson (1913) rejected introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague and difficult to measure. As a result, behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity within their research and relied on lab studies as the best way to achieve this.
• Assumptions- Behaviourist approach 


  Behaviourists believe that all behaviour is learned. They describe a baby's mind as a 'blank slate and this is written on by experience. Following Darwin, behaviourists suggested that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species. This meant that in behaviourist research, animals replace humans as experimental subjects. Behaviourists identified two important forms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
• Classic Conditioning- Pavlov’s Research 


  Classical conditioning is learning by association and was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov (1927). He showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food. Gradually, his dogs learned to associate the bell (a stimulus) with the food (another stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound. He was able to show how a neutral stimulus, the bell, can elicit a new learned response (conditioned response) via association.
• Operant conditioning- Skinner’s research 


  B.F. Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process where humans and animals operate on their environment. Skinner conducted experiments with rats, and sometimes pigeons, in specially designed cages called Skinner boxes. Every time the rat activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet. From then on the animal would continue to perform the behaviour. He also showed how rats and pigeons could be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus, for example an electric shock.
• Positive reinforcement (a consequence in operant conditioning)


  This is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed, for example, praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class.
• Negative reinforcement (a consequence in operant conditioning)


  This occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant. The outcome is a positive experience. For example, when a student hands in an essay so as not to be told off, the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement. Similarly, a rat may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever leads to avoidance of an electric shock
• Punishment (a consequence in operant conditioning)


  This is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, for example being shouted at by the teacher for talking during a lesson. (Finding a way to avoid that would be negative reinforcement.)
• Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. Punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated.
• Strength of behaviourist approach 


  One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled research. Behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down behaviour into basic stimulus-response units, all other possible extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause-and-effect relationships to be established. For instance, Skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal's behaviour. This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific credibility.
• Strength of behaviourist approach- Counterpoint


  However, the problem with this is that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process. By reducing behaviour to such simple components, behaviourists may have ignored an important influence on learning - that of human thought. Other approaches, such as social learning theory and the cognitive approach have drawn attention to the mental processes involved in learning. This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and that private mental processes are also essential.
• Strength of behaviourist approach 


  Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that the principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems. For example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions, such as prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges. This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread application.
• Limitation of behaviourist approach 


  It sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences. Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history. When something happens we may think ‘Imade the decision to do that' but, according to Skinner, our past conditioning history determined the outcome. This ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour (Skinner himself said that free will is an illusion). This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of conscious decision-making processes on behaviour.
• Social learning theory 


  A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.
• Imitation


  Copying the behaviour of others.
• Identification 


  When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model.
• Modelling 


  From the observer's perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model. From the role model's perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer.
• Vicarious reinforcement 


  Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor in imitation.
• Meditational processes 


  Cognitive factors (i.e. thinking) that influence learning and come between stimulus and response.
• Assumptions- Social learning theory 


  Albert Bandura agreed with the behaviourists that behaviour is learned from experience. However, his social learning theory (SLT) proposed a different way in which people learn - through observation and imitation of others (i.e. it is social - involving others). SLT suggested that learning occurs directly, through cassical and operant conditioning, but also indirectly.
• Vicarious reinforcement in social learning theory 


  For indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others. The learner may imitate this behaviour but, in general, imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded (reinforced) rather than punished, i.e. vicarious reinforcement occurs (see study by Bandura and Walters). Thus, the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly also observes the consequences of a behaviour.
• The role of meditational processes


  SLT is often described as the 'bridge' between behaviourist learning theory & the cognitive approach because it focuses on how mental factors are involved in learning. These mental factors mediate (i.e. intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a new response is acquired. 4 meditational processes in learning were identified by Bandura. Unlike traditional behaviourism, the learning and performance of behaviour need not occur together. Observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.
• Bandura’s 4 motivational processes- SLT


  1. Attention - the extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
  2. Retention - how well the behaviour is remembered.
  3. Motor reproduction - the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour.
  4. Motivation - the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished.
• Identification 


  People (especially children) are more likely to imitate people they identify with. The person they identify with is called a role model and the process of imitating a role model is called modelling (note: the behaviour of a role model is also called modelling). A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer and/or are attractive and have high status. Role models may not necessarily be physically present in the environment, and this has important implications for the influence of the media on behaviour
• Strength of social learning theory 


  It recognises the importance of cognitive factors in learning. Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account of learning on their own. Humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. This suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human learning by recognising the role of meditational processes.
• Strength of SLT- counterpoint 


  SLT has been criticised for making little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning. Although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our learning potential, he thought that learning itself was determined by the environment. But, recent research suggests that observational learning, of the kind Bandura was talking about, may be the result of mirror neurons in the brain, which allow us to empathise with and imitate other people. This suggests that biological influences on social learning were under emphasised in SLT.
• Limitation of SLT


  The evidence on which it is based was gathered through lab studies. Many of Bandura's ideas were developed through observation of young children's behaviour in the lab. Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics. It has been said (Bobo Doll research) that, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected. This suggests that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life.
• Strength of SLT


  SLT principles have been applied to a range of real-world behaviours. Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences in behaviour. SLT principles, such as modelling, imitation and reinforcement, can account for how children learn from others around them, & this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range of behaviours. This increases the value of the approach as it can account for real-world behaviour.
• Bandura et al. (1961) original research 


  Bandura et al. (1961) recorded the behaviour of young children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards a Bobo doll. The adult hit the doll with a hammer and shouted abuse at it. When these children were later observed playing with various toys, including a Bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a non-aggressive adult.