autonomic nervous system

• What are the two main types of neuronal fibers in the sympathetic nervous system?

  • Preganglionic fibers
  • Postganglionic fibers

  
• How do preganglionic fibers differ from postganglionic fibers in terms of their origin and projection?

  • Preganglionic fibers originate from the spinal cord and project to autonomic ganglia.
  • Postganglionic fibers originate from autonomic ganglia and project to target tissues.

  
• How does sympathetic innervation affect the function of blood vessels?

  Sympathetic innervation causes vasoconstriction in most blood vessels to increase blood pressure and blood flow to vital organs during stress.

  
• What type of muscles are controlled by sympathetic fibers that cause hair to stand erect?

  Piloerector muscles

  
• Which glands are primarily controlled by sympathetic innervation?

  Sweat glands

  
• Which ganglion connects with the adrenal medulla?

  Aortico-renal ganglion

  
• What are the functions of the hypogastric plexus?

  • Serves as a central relay for sympathetic fibers innervating pelvic viscera.
  • Coordinates sympathetic responses in the lower abdomen and pelvis.

  
• What structures are controlled by the hypogastric plexus?

  • Genitalia
  • Anal sphincter
  • Ureter
  • Detrusor
  • Trigone
  • Bladder

  
• What are preganglionic fibers characterized by in the sympathetic nervous system?

  They are myelinated and relatively short.

  
• What are postganglionic fibers characterized by in the sympathetic nervous system?

  They are unmyelinated and relatively long.

  
• What are the primary neurotransmitters released by sympathetic fibers?

  • Acetylcholine at preganglionic synapses.
  • Norepinephrine at postganglionic synapses.

  
• How does the sympathetic nervous system contribute to the fight-or-flight response?

  By increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and blood flow to muscles while reducing blood flow to non-essential organs, preparing the body for immediate action.

  
• What are the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

  • Parasympathetic
  • Sympathetic

  
• What functions does the parasympathetic nervous system control?

  Parasympathetic functions include water balance, feeding control, and slowing of heart rate.

  
• What are the primary roles of the sympathetic nervous system?

  The sympathetic nervous system controls functions such as urinary bladder control, cardiac acceleration, vasoconstriction, and respiratory function.

  
• How does the hypothalamus regulate heat control in the body?

  The hypothalamus receives temperature-related signals and initiates physiological responses to maintain body temperature homeostasis.

  
• What structure in the brain is responsible for urinary bladder control?

  The hypothalamus is responsible for urinary bladder control.

  
• What is the function of the pneumotaxic center in the brain?

  The pneumotaxic center controls the rate and depth of breathing.

  
• How does the sympathetic nervous system affect cardiac function?

  It increases heart rate and force of contraction through norepinephrine release, resulting in cardiac acceleration.

  
• What are the primary components of the hypothalamus?

  • Pituitary gland
  • Mammillary body

  
• Which part of the brain stem controls the rate of breathing?

  The respiratory center in the brainstem controls the rate of breathing.

  
• What are the main components of the cervical plexus in horses?

  • C1 to C7
  • Cranial cervical nerve
  • Dorsal cervical nerve
  • Ventral cervical nerve

  
• What is the main function of the salivary glands?

  • Produce and secrete saliva

  
• What are the primary components of saliva?

  Water, enzymes (such as amylase), electrolytes, and mucus.

  
• How does saliva contribute to the digestive process?

  • Initiates chemical digestion of carbohydrates with amylase
  • Moistens food for easier swallowing
  • Cleanses the oral cavity
  • Contains enzymes that protect against bacteria

  
• Name one major enzyme found in saliva.

  Amylase

  
• What is the role of amylase in saliva?

  • Breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars

  
• Why is mucus important in saliva?

  It lubricates food to facilitate swallowing and prevents mouth dryness.

  
• What are the functions of electrolytes in saliva?

  • Maintain pH balance
  • Regulate osmotic pressure

  
• How do the components of saliva work together to facilitate digestion?

  • Enzymes (like amylase) chemically break down food
  • Mucus lubricates food for smooth passage
  • Water and electrolytes maintain proper pH and moisture levels

  
• What are the three major pairs of salivary glands?

  Parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.

  
• Where are the parotid salivary glands located?

  • In front of the ears

  
• What is the duct associated with the parotid gland called?

  Parotid duct

  
• What is the function of the parotid duct?

  • Carries saliva from the parotid gland to the oral cavity

  
• Where are the submandibular salivary glands located?

  • Under the lower jaw

  
• What are the accessory glands in the salivary system?

  • Numerous smaller glands scattered throughout the oral cavity

  
• What is the role of accessory glands in the salivary system?

  They contribute to the continuous moistening and cleansing of the oral cavity.

  
• What type of infection commonly affects the parotid salivary glands?

  Mumps

  
• What are some common disorders of the salivary glands?

  • Mumps (viral infection)
  • Sjogren's syndrome (autoimmune disease)
  • Salivary gland stones (sialadenitis)

  
• What is a common autoimmune disease that can affect the salivary glands?

  Sjogren's syndrome