observations

• What are the two types of observations?

  naturalistic

  controlled
• naturalistic observation

  • field research (natural environment)
  • no IV
  • behaviour objectively measured in natural everyday environment
  • observed and recorded as it randomly occurs OR uses coding system looking for specifics
  • participants often do not know they're taking part
  • e.g. being sane in insane places - Rosenhan, 1973
• controlled observations


  • laboratory research (controlled environment)
  • participants know they're taking part
  • e.g. the secret life of four year-olds
• what are the four ways of conducting observations?

  overtly

  covertly

  participant

  non-participant
• covertly

  participants don't know they're taking part
• overtly


  participants know they're taking part
• participant


  • researcher becomes part of population being studied
  • e.g. being homeless, recording behaviour
  • participant observation involves observing behaviour in environment its typically going to occur
• non-participant


  • researcher not involved in research as a participant
  • researcher doesn't try to influence participants in any way or take part in group activities
  • e.g. Mary Ainsworth, 1969
• naturalistic observations evaluation


  • partic know they are taking part = demand characteristics = low eco validity
  • natural environment = high mundane realism = high eco validity
  • can be generalised to category of population being studied (e.g. 6 year-old being studied = generalised to 6 year-old)
  • lack of control = low control of extraneous variables = becomes confounding = low internal validity
  • ethical issue = no informed consent due to not knowing true aims of study = presumptive consent OR debrief at end
• controlled observations evaluation


  • can be used to replicate environments
  • lab research = controlled fake environment = low eco validity = low mundane realism
  • high reliability due to consistency as conditions replicable due to control, operationalisation & standardised procedures
  • can be generalised to category of people being researched
  • participants know they are taking part = no demand characteristics = high external validity
  • more control = high internal validity
• How can you make observations more reliable?

  by using inter-rater reliability
• issues with inter-rater reliability

  • more than one observer observing behaviour may give inconsistent readings of behaviour
  • to improve, needs operationalisation
  • behaviour needs to be coded & categorised
  • individuals ratings are correlated
  • positive correlation = high reliability
• unstructured observation

  • researcher record relevant behaviour when they occur
  • no system
  • problematic when too much behaviour to record & only behaviour most visible will be recorded
• structured observations


  • more objective
  • use behavioural categories & sampling procedures
  • often preferred due to systematic
• when conducting structured observation, observers record every instance of behaviour in as much detail as possible. however, too much date to record should be combatted with structured method of recording behaviour to make observing behaviour more manageable
• what are the key features of a structured observation?

  behavioural categories & sampling procedures
• event sampling


  involves keeping tally every time a particular observable event/behaviour occurs (frequency counts)
• time sampling


  observing behaviour for a specific amount of time to record whether or not target behaviour occurred e.g. observing behaviour every 15 mins or 1 hr