infection and response

• What are pathogens?

  Microorganisms causing infectious diseases
• How do pathogens spread?

  Through direct contact, water, or air
• What are the four types of pathogens?

  Viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi
• How do viruses replicate?

  They use host cell biochemistry to copy
• What happens to cells when viruses replicate?

  Cells burst, releasing copies into bloodstream
• How do bacteria multiply?

  By binary fission
• What do bacteria produce that can damage cells?

  Toxins
• What are protists known for?

  Some are parasitic, using hosts
• What are fungi made of?

  Hyphae or single cells
• How do fungi spread?

  By producing spores
• What are the main ways pathogens are spread?

  • Direct contact (e.g., kissing, touching)
  • By water (e.g., dirty water)
  • By air (e.g., droplet infection)
• How can the spread of diseases be reduced?

  By improving hygiene and vaccination
• What is herd immunity?

  Protection from disease through population immunity
• What is the role of vaccines?

  To make individuals immune to diseases
• What are the symptoms of measles?

  Fever and red skin rash
• How is measles spread?

  Through droplet infection
• How is HIV primarily spread?

  By sexual contact or bodily fluids
• What are the initial symptoms of HIV?

  Flu-like symptoms
• How can the spread of HIV be prevented?

  Using condoms and not sharing needles
• What are the symptoms of tobacco mosaic virus?

  Discolouration of leaves
• How is tobacco mosaic virus spread?

  Contact between diseased and healthy plants
• What is salmonella food poisoning caused by?

  Bacteria in the gut of animals
• What are the symptoms of salmonella food poisoning?

  Fever, stomach cramps, vomiting, diarrhoea
• How can salmonella be prevented?

  Vaccinating poultry and hygiene practices
• What are the symptoms of gonorrhoea?

  Thick yellow or green discharge
• How is gonorrhoea spread?

  Through unprotected sexual contact
• How can gonorrhoea be prevented?

  Using condoms and antibiotics
• What are the symptoms of rose black spot?

  Purple or black spots on leaves
• How is rose black spot spread?

  By water or wind
• How can rose black spot be prevented?

  Using fungicides or removing affected leaves
• What are the symptoms of malaria?

  Fevers and shaking
• How is malaria spread?

  By female Anopheles mosquito
• How can malaria be prevented?

  Using insecticide nets and removing stagnant water
• What is the non-specific defence system in humans?

  • Skin: Physical barrier and antimicrobial secretions
  • Nose: Hairs and mucus trap particles
  • Trachea and bronchi: Mucus traps pathogens, cilia waft it upwards
  • Stomach: Hydrochloric acid kills pathogens
• What is the role of white blood cells in the specific immune system?

  They destroy pathogens and produce antibodies
• What is phagocytosis?

  Engulfing and consuming pathogens
• How do antibodies help in immunity?

  They bind to antigens on pathogens
• What happens during a secondary infection?

  Antibodies are produced faster
• What is the concern regarding antibiotic resistance?

  Bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics
• How can antibiotic resistance be prevented?

  By not overusing antibiotics and finishing courses