Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

• What are the three levels of anatomy mentioned?

  Ultra-structure, histology, gross anatomy
• What are the two levels of physiology mentioned?

  Molecular, cell, systems
• Name three body systems listed in the material.

  Cardiovascular, respiratory, urinary
• How does heart rate change during exercise?

  It increases during exercise
• Why does heart rate increase during exercise?

  To increase blood supply to active muscles
• What role does sympathetic activity play in heart rate during exercise?

  It releases noradrenaline
• What effect does circulating adrenaline have on heart rate?

  It increases heart rate
• Where are impulses generated that affect heart rate?

  Sinoatrial node
• What happens to the membrane potential at the sinoatrial node during increased heart rate?

  It reaches the threshold more quickly
• What does the patch-clamp technique measure?

  Calcium current through individual ion channels
• What effect does noradrenaline have on cAMP levels?

  It raises cAMP
• What does protein kinase A do when activated by cAMP?

  It phosphorylates L-type calcium channel
• What is the process of heart rate increase during exercise?

  1. Heart rate increases during exercise.
  2. Blood supply to active muscles increases.
  3. Sympathetic activity releases noradrenaline.
  4. Circulating adrenaline increases.
  5. Impulses generated by sinoatrial node.
  6. Membrane potential reaches threshold quickly.
• What are the effects of noradrenaline on cellular signaling?

  • Raises cAMP levels
  • Activates protein kinase A
  • Phosphorylates L-type calcium channel