Psychological Explanations

• What does Eysenck argue about personality?

  It has a biological basis
• What are the dimensions proposed by Eysenck to represent behavior?

  Introversion vs Extraversion, Neuroticism vs Stability, Psychoticism
• What is the name of the questionnaire used to measure Eysenck's dimensions?

  Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)
• How are extraverts characterized according to Eysenck?

  Outgoing, optimistic, sociable, impulsive
• What traits define introverts in Eysenck's theory?

  Reserved, plan actions, reliable
• What characteristics describe neurotics?

  Anxious, worrying, overly emotional, unpredictable
• How does Eysenck define stable individuals?

  Emotionally calm and unreactive
• What does psychoticism entail according to Eysenck?

  Lacking empathy, aggressive, troublesome
• How does extraversion relate to the nervous system?

  Extraverts have an underactive nervous system
• What is the behavior of neurotics under stress?

  They exhibit unstable and unpredictable behavior
• How are criminals characterized in terms of psychoticism?

  Cold, unemotional, prone to aggression
• What role does socialization play in Eysenck's theory?

  Links personality with criminality through development
• How does Eysenck describe criminals in terms of gratification?

  Developmentally immature and concerned with immediate gratification
• What is the effect of high N and E on nervous systems?

  They are difficult to condition against anti-social behavior
• What did Eysenck's study in 1977 reveal about prisoners?

  Prisoners scored higher on neuroticism, psychoticism, and extraversion
• What is a limitation of Eysenck's findings regarding personality and crime?

  Correlation does not imply causation
• What did Farrington find regarding psychoticism in criminals?

  High scores on psychoticism, but not on E or N
• What is a criticism of self-report questionnaires in Eysenck's theory?

  They may suffer from social desirability bias
• How is social desirability bias countered in Eysenck's research?

  By using a lie scale in the questionnaire
• What is a limitation of Eysenck's theory regarding personality?

  It suggests personality is fixed and unchanging
• What does Eysenck's theory imply about criminal responsibility?

  It suggests determinism and lack of control
• What are cognitive distortions?

  Errors or biases in processing information
• How do cognitive distortions relate to offending behavior?

  They allow rationalization of criminal actions
• What is hostile attribution bias?

  Perceiving others' actions as negative reactions
• How does hostile attribution bias affect behavior?

  It triggers disproportionate responses
• What is minimalization in the context of offending?

  Downplaying the seriousness of the offense
• What are some forms of minimalization?

  Trivializing the crime, blaming the victim
• What did Schonenberg and Justye's study reveal?

  Violent offenders see ambiguous faces as hostile
• What did Pollock's findings on child molesters indicate?

  They rationalized their actions and blamed victims
• What are the practical applications of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)?

  Reframing irrational thoughts to reduce offending
• What did Heller's study find regarding CBT and arrests?

  44% reduction in arrests for participants
• What is Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning based on?

  Stages of moral development influenced by maturity
• What characterizes preconventional morality?

  Selfish and childlike moral reasoning
• What is the focus of stage 1 in Kohlberg's theory?

  Obedience and punishment orientation
• What defines stage 2 of Kohlberg's moral development?

  Individualism and exchange for personal gain
• What characterizes conventional morality?

  Internalized authority and group norms
• What is the focus of stage 3 in Kohlberg's theory?

  Good interpersonal relationships and approval
• What does stage 4 of Kohlberg's moral development emphasize?

  Maintaining social order through obedience
• What defines post-conventional morality?

  Individual judgment based on self-chosen principles
• What did Kohlberg find about violent youths' moral reasoning?

  They had lower moral reasoning than non-violent youths