marxist

• Cox - ‘race’ is a human creation developed to justify exploitation under capitalism. Racism emerged with capitalism’s rise, tied to colonialism and the systematic exploitation of labor, justified by beliefs in white superiority. While racism isn’t exclusive to white people, Cox attributes its development to white Europeans alongside capitalism. He suggests that without capitalism, racial prejudice might not have arisen.
• Legitimisation


  Racism helps justify low pay and poor working conditions because black workers are seen as second-class citizens. Capitalist employers benefit from the cheap labour of ethnic minorities.
• Divide and rule


  If black and white workers unite then they are in a stronger position to campaign for better wages and conditions.

  Castles and Kosack argue that employers prefer them to be divided by racism so they can play off against one another. Employers may use the black workforce as a ‘reserve army of labour’ to prevent white workers from demanding higher wages.
• Scapegoating


  When society faces severe social and economic problems, frustration and aggression can grow. Instead of targeting the capitalist class, some white people may turn their anger on vulnerable groups, using black people as scapegoats for issues like unemployment and housing shortages. Scapegoating benefits the wealthy and powerful by deflecting criticism and reducing calls for change.
• institutional racism


  consists of the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin
• Castles and kosack


  Castles and Kosack found that most immigrants in Britain were in low-paid, low-skilled jobs or unemployed. They argued that capitalism needs a "reserve army of labour" to keep wages low and weaken worker power. After WWII, European countries relied on immigrant labour, placing them at the bottom of the working class. This divide benefited the ruling class by suppressing wages, using "divide-and-rule" tactics, and scapegoating immigrants for unemployment, diverting attention from capitalism as the real cause of inequality and weakening worker unity.
• Miles


  Miles argues that ethnic minorities become part of “racialised class fractions,” which are reinforced when the White working class stresses their ethnicity through prejudice, and ethnic minorities react by highlighting their own identity through cultural and religious practices. 

  Miles notes that more ethnic minorities are entering the professional middle class, though often in lower-status and lower-paid positions.