Evolutionary Explanations of Human Aggression

• What is an evolutionary explanation?

  An account of species changes over time
• What are some evolutionary explanations mentioned?

  Sexual jealousy and bullying
• Why might jealousy occur in men?

  Due to paternity uncertainty and cuckoldry threat
• How does jealousy affect a male's investment in offspring?

  It leads to viewing investment as wasteful
• What evolutionary advantage do men gain by avoiding cuckoldry?

  Increased productivity and successful offspring
• What psychological mechanisms have evolved in men regarding cuckoldry?

  Anti-cuckoldry behaviors and retention strategies
• What are some mate retention strategies identified by Wilson & Daly?

  Direct guarding and negative inducements
• What is direct guarding in mate retention strategies?

  Male vigilance over a partner's behavior
• What are negative inducements in mate retention strategies?

  Threats of dire consequences for infidelity
• What did Wilson et al (1995) find regarding women's experiences with mate retention strategies?

  Women agreeing with statements faced more violence
• What percentage of women required medical attention due to violence?

  73%
• What percentage of women feared for their lives?

  53%
• What causes bullying according to the study material?

  A power imbalance among individuals
• How did researchers traditionally view bullying?

  As maladaptive behavior
• How might bullying have been adaptive for our ancestors?

  Increased chances of survival and reproduction
• What do Volk et al (2012) argue about bullying characteristics?

  They are attractive to females
• How does a reputation for toughness affect boys?

  Reduces likelihood of experiencing aggression
• What is a benefit of being at the top of the dominance hierarchy?

  Experiencing less stress
• How is female bullying characterized?

  Often occurs within a relationship
• What is a reason for female bullying in relationships?

  To control a partner and secure fidelity
• Why might a female bully continue to provide resources?

  To support future offspring
• What are the gender differences in aggression according to the study material?

  • Differences may arise from socialization
  • Some differences can be explained as adaptive strategies
  • Campbell (1999) suggests females may use verbal aggression instead of physical
• What is the real-world application of viewing bullying as adaptive behavior?

  • Interventions based on bully deficiencies are common
  • Ellis et al (2016) suggest giving bullies 'meaningful roles'
  • This approach may lead to more effective anti-bullying interventions
• What did Lee (1979) describe about the homicide rate of the !Kung San people?

  It is surprisingly high
• What methodological issues affect observations of the !Kung San people?

  Observer bias and sample limitations
• What cultural differences exist regarding aggression?

  Some cultures rarely exhibit aggression
• What did Thomas (1958) find about the !Kung San people's attitudes towards aggression?

  They have negative attitudes towards aggression
• What happens to those who use aggression in the !Kung San community?

  Their reputation is diminished
• What are the implications of aggression not being adaptive in some cultures?

  • Suggests aggression may not be universally beneficial
  • Indicates cultural context influences behavior
  • Challenges the notion of aggression as an evolutionary advantage
• What is a limitation for the Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression?

  Cultural Differences

  • There are some cultures where aggression is rarely present, such as the !Kung San people of Botswana
  • Thomas (1958) found they have very negative attitudes towards the use of aggression and those who use it have their reputation within the community diminished
  • Therefore, since some cultures do not show aggressiveness, such behaviour may not necessarily be adaptive
• What is a strength for the Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression?

  High Homicide Rate

  • Lee (1979) described the homicide rate as surprisingly high for the so-called ‘harmless’ !Kung San people
  • These contradictions in findings may be due to the fact that an observer may be biased by their own expectations, and also by the particular sample of people they observe
  • These methodological issues mean that observations by ‘outsiders’ may not be useful, and so lacks validity
• What is a strength for the Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression?

  Real World Application

  • Despite there being many interventions based of the assumption of a bully’s deficiencies, bullying is still prevalent
  • Ellis et al (2016) suggested an alternative in which bullies are given ‘meaningful roles’ to provide an alternative source of status
  • Therefore viewing bullying as an adaptive behaviour may lead to more effective anti-bullying interventions
• What is a strength for the Evolutionary Explanation of Aggression?

  Gender Differences

  • Research shows that there are gender differences in aggression, which could be due to socialisation, but some can be explained as adaptive strategies
  • Campbell (1999) argues that it is not adaptive for a female with offspring to be physically aggressive, as it would put both her and her offspring at risk, and so she may be verbally aggressive instead
  • Therefore, such arguments can provide support for the evolutionary approach to explaining aggression