Respiratory

• What is the main job of the lungs and how do they facilitate this during inhalation and exhalation?

  • Main job: Gas exchange
  • Inhalation:
  • Diaphragm contracts to pull downward
  • Chest muscles contract to open the chest
  • Creates a vacuum to suck in air
  • Exhalation:
  • Muscles relax
  • Lungs spring back to normal size
  • Pushes air out
• What are lysozymes in the mucus of the nasal cavity?

  Lysozymes are enzymes that help kill bacteria.
• What is the role of mucus in the nasal cavity?

  • Salty and sticky
  • Contains lysozymes to kill bacteria
  • Trapped large particles of dust and pollen
  • Forms tiny clumps of boogers
• What are the paranasal sinuses and what are their functions?

  • Air-filled spaces inside the bones surrounding the nose
  • There are four:
  • Frontal sinus
  • Ethmoid sinus
  • Sphenoid sinus
  • Maxillary sinus
  • Functions:
  • Circulate inspired air for warming and moistening
  • Amplify the sound of the voice
• Describe the different parts of the pharynx and their connections.

  • Nasopharynx: Connects nasal cavity to pharynx
  • Oropharynx: Connects pharynx to oral cavity
  • Laryngopharynx: Connects pharynx to larynx
• What is the role of the epiglottis in the larynx?

  It acts like a lid that seals the airway off when you’re eating to prevent food from entering the larynx.
• What are the main components and features of the trachea and large bronchi?

  • Trachea: Windpipe
  • Carina: Point where the trachea splits into the two mainstem bronchi
  • Mainstem bronchi: Two main branches entering the lungs
  • Lobes of lungs:
  • Right lung: 3 lobes (upper, middle, lower)
  • Left lung: 2 lobes (upper, lower)
  • Wide airways supported by cartilage rings
  • Contains a layer of smooth muscle with autonomic nervous system nerves
• What are the two basic types of nerves in the autonomic nervous system and their functions?

  • Sympathetic nerves:
  • Involved in ‘fight or flight’ mode
  • Example: Running from a turkey
  • Parasympathetic nerves:
  • Involved in ‘rest and digest’ mode
  • Example: Eating ice cream on the beach
• What is the mucociliary escalator?

  The mucociliary escalator is the mechanism where mucus and trapped particles are moved from the airways to the pharynx by ciliated columnar cells.
• What is the role of club cells in the bronchioles?

  They secrete glycosaminoglycans to protect the epithelium and can transform into ciliated columnar cells to regenerate damaged tissue.
• Describe the respiratory bronchioles, alveoli, and alveolar ducts.

  • Respiratory bronchioles: Have tiny outpouchings called alveoli
  • Alveoli: Tiny air sacs within the lungs, approximately 500 million
  • Alveolar ducts: Airways where respiratory bronchioles end, consisting only of alveoli
• How are particles cleared from the lungs?

  • Alveolar macrophages engulf particles
  • Move up to conducting bronchioles
  • Utilize the mucociliary escalator to reach the pharynx
  • Particles are then either coughed up or swallowed
• Describe the gas exchange process between alveoli and capillaries.

  • Carbon dioxide diffuses from deoxygenated blood into the air of the alveoli
  • Oxygen enters the alveoli and diffuses into the blood
  • Freshly oxygenated blood travels to the pulmonary veins, heart, and body’s tissues
• How do paranasal sinuses help with the inspired air and voice?

  They circulate air for warming and moistening, and act like tiny echo-chambers to amplify the voice.
• What occurs if anything other than air enters the larynx?

  The cough reflex is triggered to expel the foreign substance.
• What are the main cell types lining the large airways and their functions?

  • Ciliated columnar cells:
  • Move mucus and trapped particles towards the pharynx
  • Goblet cells:
  • Secrete mucus to trap particles
• What are bronchioles and what cell types do they contain?

  • Bronchioles: Narrow airways without cartilage that follow conducting bronchioles
  • Cell types:
  • Ciliated columnar cells
  • Goblet cells
  • Club cells: Secrete glycosaminoglycans to protect the epithelium
• What is the regenerative role of type II pneumocytes?

  They can transform into type I pneumocytes to regenerate and replace damaged cells.
• What structures form the blood-gas barrier?

  The blood-gas barrier consists of the alveolar wall, the basement membrane, and the capillary wall.
• Summarize the journey of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the respiratory system.

  • Inhaled oxygen travels through:
  • Pharynx
  • Larynx
  • Trachea
  • Large upper airways
  • Conducting bronchioles
  • Respiratory bronchioles
  • Alveoli
  • Capillary to body tissues
  • Exhaled carbon dioxide travels the reverse journey to be expelled.
• What does the COMPASS programme aim to improve?

  Health and social care provision
• How does COMPASS complement traditional NHS Talking Therapies?

  By offering scalable digital therapies
• What is a key benefit of COMPASS's remote delivery?

  It addresses travel and mobility barriers
• How does COMPASS maintain cost-effectiveness?

  Minimal therapist input is required
• What gap does COMPASS fill in health provision?

  It addresses both mental and physical health needs
• Why is scalability important for COMPASS?

  It supports nationwide implementation
• What type of interventions can therapists provide using COMPASS?

  Individualized support for illness-specific challenges
• What improvements were noted in patient outcomes from the study?

  Reductions in anxiety and depression
• How does COMPASS improve therapist efficiency?

  By shifting interventions to a digital platform
• What is a key aspect of therapist training for COMPASS?

  Integrating physical and mental health needs
• What are the recommendations for improving provision and practice of COMPASS?

  • National rollout through NHS or charity partnerships
  • Expand funding for digital therapy model
  • Address digital literacy barriers
  • Introduce offline or hybrid models
  • Conduct longer trials for sustained impact
  • Explore integration with other NHS therapies
  • Implement ongoing monitoring and feedback
• What is a recommendation for the national rollout of COMPASS?

  Establish a centralized delivery pathway
• Why is it important to include diverse populations in COMPASS?

  To address digital literacy barriers
• What should be done to accommodate elderly populations in COMPASS?

  Introduce offline or hybrid models
• What is the purpose of conducting extended trial durations for COMPASS?

  To assess sustained impact on psychological distress
• What does ongoing monitoring and feedback for COMPASS aim to achieve?

  To refine and optimize the therapy
• What do secondary research findings support regarding COMPASS?

  Recommendations and findings of the COMPASS trial
• What do studies from The Lancet Digital Health demonstrate?

  Positive outcomes for digital CBT interventions
• What does the Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT) approach validate?


  Reliability in measuring intervention efficacy
• What is the conclusion about COMPASS's impact?

  It addresses unmet needs of individuals