Final prep

• PCR Primer


  Short DNA sequences complementary to the target sequence, used to initiate DNA synthesis in PCR.
• Denaturation


  Step in PCR where DNA strands are separated.
• Annealing


  Step in PCR where primers bind to the target sequence.
• Extension


  Step in PCR where DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands.
• Denaturation Temperature


  94-98°C, separates double-stranded DNA into single strands during PCR.
• Annealing Temperature


  50-65°C, allows primers to bind to the target sequence during PCR.
• Extension Temperature


  72°C, synthesizes new DNA strands during PCR.
• Antigen Presentation


  Bacteria are engulfed by dendritic cells, which process and present bacterial antigens to T-cells.
• 1. cell Activation


  Activated T-cells recognize and bind to presented antigens, triggering an immune response.
• Cytokine Production


  Activated dendritic cells and T-cells produce cytokines, coordinating the immune response.
• Immune Cell Activation


  Cytokines recruit and activate immune cells, such as neutrophils, NK cells, and B cells.
• 1. cell Binding


  Recognition and binding of T-cells to peptide-MHC complexes on APCs, triggering signal transduction and activating T-cell-mediated immune responses.
• Phagocytosis


  The process by which phagocytic cells engulf and digest foreign particles and microorganisms.
• Complement System


  A group of proteins that work together to help remove pathogens from the body, including bacteria, viruses, and other foreign substances.
• Chemokines


  Signaling molecules produced by cells in response to infection, which attract immune cells to the site of infection.
• Opsonization


  Marking pathogens for phagocytosis by coating them with complement proteins, making them more easily engulfed by phagocytic cells.
• Activation of Immune Cells

  Enhancing the activation and function of immune cells, such as neutrophils and macrophages.
• Activated B cells


  B cells that have been activated by antigens and produce antibodies.
• Plasma cells


  Mature B cells that have undergone somatic hypermutation and produce high levels of antibodies.
• Memory B cells


  Activated B cells that can rapidly respond to future infections by differentiating into plasma cells.
• Immunoglobulin Gene Rearrangement


  Plasma cells rearrange their immunoglobulin gene to produce a unique antibody molecule with high affinity for the antigen.
• Transcription and Translation


  RNA is transcribed from the rearranged immunoglobulin gene, which is then translated into a functional antibody protein.
• Immunoglobulin Secretion


  Mature antibodies are secreted by plasma cells into the bloodstream, where they can recognize and bind to specific antigens.
• Lysosome


  A membrane-bound organelle containing digestive enzymes and acids that break down and recycle damaged or foreign cellular components.
• Splicing


  The process that removes non-coding regions (introns) from a pre-mRNA transcript and joins the coding regions (exons) together to form a mature mRNA molecule.
• Intron Removal


  The removal of non-coding regions (introns) from the pre-mRNA transcript.
• Exon Joining


  The joining of exons together to form a continuous coding region.
• Bonding of Spliceosomes


  The binding of spliceosomes, protein complexes that recognize and cut the pre-mRNA, to specific sequences (splice sites) in the pre-mRNA molecule.
• Virus


  Non-living particles composed of genetic material (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat (capsid).
• Bacteria


  Single-celled, living organisms with a defined nucleus, cytoplasm, and cell membrane.
• Antibiotic Resistance


  Viruses are not affected by antibiotics, which target bacterial cell walls and protein synthesis.
• Size and Shape

  Viruses are typically 20-400 nanometers in size, with a variable shape, while bacteria are typically 0.5-5.0 micrometers in size, with a more consistent size and shape.
• Antigenic Variation


  Viruses can mutate their surface proteins to change their antigenicity, making it difficult for the immune system to recognize and target them.
• Immune Evasion Proteins


  Viruses can produce proteins that bind to and inhibit immune cells, suppressing their function and preventing them from responding to the virus.
• Transmission


  Inhaling aerosolized bacteria, close contact with an infected person, or sharing needles or contaminated equipment.
• Tuberculosis (TB)


  A bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, primarily affecting the lungs but can spread to other parts of the body.
• HIV Transmission


  Sexual transmission, blood-borne transmission, and mother-to-child transmission.
• HIV Progression Stages


  Acute HIV infection, early latent infection, chronic HIV infection, and AIDS.