Introduction to Human anatomy and Physiology

• How do we study Anatomy?

  A Inspection

  • Simply looking, palpation, auscultation, percussion

  B Dissection

  • Cadavers, comparative anatomy

  C Exploratory surgery

  D Imaging

  • X-ray, CT, Ultrasound, MRI, PET
• How do we study Anatomy?

  • Gross anatomy

  • Structure that can be seen with the naked eye by surface observation, dissection, radiology

  • Histology

  • Microscopic anatomy seen with a microscopy (light, electron etc.)
• How do we study Physiology?

  • From scientific experimentation

  • Humans, comparative physiology

  • Different scales – cell to whole organism
• Levels of Structure

  Organism

  Organ system

  Organ

  Tissue

  Cell

  Organelle

  Molecule

  Atom

  
• Levels of Structure

  Organism – single complete individual

  Organ system – group of organs that carry out a basic function of organism

  Organ – 2 or more tissues types that work to carry out a function

  Tissue – similar cells and cell products that form part of an organ and perform a function

  Cell – smallest units of an organism that carry out all the functions of life (simplest living thing)

  Organelle – microscopic structure in cell that carries out a function

  Molecule – two or more atoms joined together

  Atom – simplest form of an element
• What is Human?

  Kingdom Animalia

  Phylum Chordata

  Subphylum Vertebrata

  Class Mammalia

  Order Primates

  Family Hominidae

  Genus Homo

  Species Homo sapiens
• Our Chordate Characteristics

  • Pharyngeal arches, a series of bulges that develop in pharyngeal (throat) region. Pharyngeal pouches between open and form gill slits in fish and amphibians, but not humans.
  • A tail that extends beyond the anus. The small bones of the coccyx (“tailbone”) remain after birth as a remnant of this.
  • A notochord, a dorsal, flexible rod found only in the embryo.
  • A dorsal hollow nerve cord, a column of nervous tissue that passes along the dorsal (upper) side of the body and has a central canal filled with fluid.
• Our Chordate Characteristics

  • The first three of these features are found only in the embryo and fetus; only the nerve cord persists through life, as the spinal cord and brain.
  • 38 day old human embryo is shown below
  • Other chordates – fish, lizards, birds

  
• Our Vertebrate Characteristics


  • A well-developed brain and sense organs.

  • An internal skeleton.

  • A jointed vertebral column (spine).

  • A protective, usually bony enclosure for the brain, called the cranium.

  • Other Vertebrata – fish, reptiles, birds, mammals
• Our Mammalian Characteristics

  • Mammary glands for nourishing the young with milk.
  • Hair, which serves in most mammals to retain body heat.
  • Endothermy, the ability to generate most body heat by metabolic means instead of having to warm up by basking in the sun or seeking other warm places.
  • Less than 0.2% of animals are mammals
• Our Mammalian Characteristics

  • Heterodonty, varied types of teeth (incisors, canines, premolars, and molars) specialized to puncture, cut, and grind food. These varied teeth break food into small pieces, making chemical digestion faster. Rapid digestion is necessary to support the high metabolic rate needed to maintain endothermic animals.
  • A single lower jawbone (mandible).
  • Three middle-ear bones (known colloquially as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup).
  • Other mammals – rats, horses, dogs, monkeys
• Our Primate Characteristics


  Four upper and four lower incisors, the front cutting teeth.

  A pair of functional clavicles (collarbones).

  Only two mammary glands.

  Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic vision.

  Flat nails in place of claws.

  Opposable thumbs that can touch the fingertips, enabling the hand to encircle and grasp objects.
• Our Hominid Characteristics

  Hominid (great apes)

  Large brains

  Human

  • Largest brains

  • Bipedalism

  • Language – spoken & written

  • Abstract thinking
• The Reference Human

  • The reference man is defined as a

  healthy male 22 years old

  weighing 70 kg (154 lb)

  living at a mean ambient (surrounding) temperature of 20°C

  engaging in light physical activity

  consuming 2,800 kilocalories (kcal) per day.

  • The reference woman

  healthy female 22 years old

  weighing 58 kg (128 lb)

  living at a mean ambient (surrounding) temperature of 20°C

  engaging in light physical activity

  consuming 2,000 kilocalories (kcal) per day.
• Homeostasis

  • Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions

  • Dynamic equilibrium – physiological values fluctuate very closely around an average value
• Homeostasis – Negative Feedback

  • Negative Feedback – a process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate or reverse it

  
• Homeostasis – Negative Feedback

  Control of blood pressure with changes in posture

  
• Homeostasis – Positive Feedback

  Positive Feedback – physiological change leads to even greater change in the same direction. Used when a rapid change is needed, e.g. childbirth

  
• The Anatomical Position

  This position provides a precise and standard frame of reference for anatomical description and dissection

  person stands erect with the feet flat on the floor, arms at the sides, and the palms, face, and eyes facing forward

  
• Anatomical Terms

  
• Anatomical Planes

  
• Regions of the Body

  The axial region consists of the head, neck (cervical region), and trunk. The trunk is further divided into the thoracic region above the diaphragm and the abdominal region below it.
• Regions of the Body

  The appendicular region of the body consists of the upper and lower limbs (also called appendages or extremities).

  The upper limb includes the arm (brachial region), forearm (antebrachial region), wrist (carpal region), hand (manual region), and fingers (digits).

  The lower limb includes the thigh (femoral region), leg (crural region), ankle (tarsal region), foot (pedal region), and toes (digits).
• Regions of the Body

  
• Regions of the Body

  
• Quadrants of Abdomen

  
• 9 Regions of Abdomen

  
• Body Cavities & Membranes

  
• Body Cavities & Membranes

  • Serous membranes – secrete lubricating fluid (similar to blood serum)

  
• Body Cavities & Membranes

  
• Body Cavities & Membranes

  Retroperitoneal vs. intraperitoneal

  
• Q1a.1 Which of the following is not an essential part of anatomical position?

  1. Feet together
  2. Feet flat on the floor
  3. Forearms supinated
  4. Mouth closed
  5. Arms down to the sides

  Mouth closed
• Q1a.2 The tarsal region is ______ to the popliteal region.

  1. Medial
  2. Dorsal
  3. Superficial
  4. Distal
  5. Superior

  Distal
• Q1a.3 A _____ line passes through the sternum, umbilicus, and mons pubis.

  1. Medial
  2. Central
  3. Proximal
  4. Midclavicular
  5. Midsagittal
  6. Intertubercular

  Midsagittal
• Q1a.4 This image shows a ____ section?

  Transverse

  
• Q1a.5 This image shows a ____ section?

  Sagittal

  
• Q1a.6 This image shows a ____ section?

  Coronal

  
• Q1a.7 Which region is pointed to by the arrow?

  Cubital

  1. Axillary
  2. Cephalic
  3. Palmar
  4. Umbilical
  5. Cubital

  
• Q1a.8 Which region is pointed to by the arrow?

  Nuchal

  1. Cranial
  2. Scapular
  3. Femoral
  4. Crural
  5. Nuchal

  
• Water

  • 50 - 70 % of the body is water

  • Virtually all reactions in the body use water as the solvent

  • allows molecules to move throughout body

  • Hydrophilic substances dissolve in water, e.g. sugars

  • Hydrophobic substances do not dissolve in water, e.g. fats