A03

• P: A strength lies in research support of situational variables' influence on obedience.

  E: Bickman (1974) dressed up confederates in different outfits (jack and tie, milkman, security guard’s uniform) who asked people on the street to perform tasks such as picking up litter.

  E: People were more likely to obey commands from an individual dressed as a security guard compared to the others, suggesting the power of situational cues.

  L: Therefore, this supports the impact of environmental factors, such as uniforms, in shaping obedience behaviours, complementing Milgram's findings.
• Point: Another strength is the cross-cultural replication of Milgram's findings.

  Evidence: Meeus and Raaijmakers (1986) replicated Milgram's results in a Dutch context, observing high obedience rates (90%) when participants were ordered to say stressful things to a confederate.

  Explain: In addition, when the person giving the order was not present, obedience decreased significantly, replicating the effects of proximity.

  Link: Therefore, this indicates the universality of obedience tendencies across cultures, extending the generalizability of Milgram's conclusions on obedience.
• Point: However, a limitation emerges regarding the limited cross-cultural replications of Milgram's research.

  Evidence: Smith and Bond (1998) identified few replications outside culturally similar contexts to the US, such as India and Jordan.

  Explain: Most cross-cultural replications have involved countries that are similar to the US, in terms of their notions regarding the role of authority e.g. Spain, Australia, Scotland.

  Link: Therefore, it is uncertain whether Milgram's findings can be universally applied across cultures, prompting caution in generalising his results.
• Point: One limitation concerns participants' awareness of the experimental setup.

  Evidence: Orne and Holland (1968) suggested that participants may have realised the deception in Milgram's variations experiments, affecting their responses.

  Explain: This was especially true for the variation where the experiment was replaced by a member of the public.

  Link: Thus, this limitation raises concerns about the authenticity of Milgram's results, highlighting the need for further investigation into the potential influence of demand characteristics in obedience studies.