neuro

• What does this study pack introduce regarding the central nervous system?


  It introduces the key components of the central nervous system and the neurotransmitters involved.
• What is the focus of the following section in the study material?

  It is a refresher on the anatomy of the brain and nervous system.
• What are the protective layers surrounding the brain and spinal cord called?

  They are called meninges.
• What does the spinal cord consist of?

  The spinal cord consists of grey and white matter.
• What is grey matter primarily formed of?

  Grey matter is principally formed of cell bodies and unmyelinated interneurons.
• What does white matter primarily consist of?

  White matter is principally myelinated axons and contains ascending and descending tracts.
• What is the limbic system involved in regulating?

  The limbic system is involved in the regulation of motivated behaviors such as feeding, fleeing, and fighting.
• What is the primary motor cortex specialized for?

  The primary motor cortex is specialized for the control of movement.
• What does the primary somatic cortex specialize in?

  The primary somatic cortex specializes in perception and receives information such as pain, touch, pressure, and temperature.
• What happens if the association cortex is damaged?

  Damage to the association cortex leads to difficulties in perception.
• What are the two categories of transmitter substances in the CNS?

  Small molecule transmitters and large molecule transmitters.
• What are the effects of acetylcholine in the body?

  Acetylcholine has excitatory effects on skeletal muscle and inhibitory effects on cardiac muscle.
• What are the catecholamines produced from tyrosine?

  Adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine.
• What is the primary role of noradrenergic neurons in the brain?

  They are primarily involved in the control of wakefulness and alertness.
• What functions is dopamine implicated in?

  Dopamine is implicated in the control of movement, attention, and learning.
• What receptors are associated with dopamine?

  Dopamine receptors include D1, D2, and also D3–D5.
• What is the precursor for serotonin?

  The precursor for serotonin is tryptophan.
• What are the three main amino acid transmitters mentioned?

  Glutamic acid, GABA, and glycine.
• What are the three ionotropic receptor subtypes of glutamic acid?

  The three subtypes are NMDA, AMPA, and Kainate.
• What is the role of NMDA receptors in the CNS?

  NMDA receptors control a channel blocked by magnesium ions in the resting state and require low concentrations of glycine as a co-agonist.
• How is GABA produced?

  GABA is produced from glutamic acid by glutamic acid decarboxylase.
• What is the role of glycine in the CNS?

  Glycine is an inhibitory transmitter in the spinal cord and lower brain.
• What are neuropeptides and their primary function?

  Neuropeptides are neurotransmitters that bind to receptors in the brain and are associated with analgesia and pleasure.
• What is the blood-brain barrier (BBB)?

  The BBB is a layer of brain epithelial cells with tight junctions that protects the brain from harmful toxins.
• How can compounds enter the brain?

  Compounds must have the optimum properties to cross epithelial cells or exploit naturally occurring carrier systems.
• What is a rule of thumb regarding drug properties for BBB penetration?

  If polar groups are added to molecules, the most likely effect will be to decrease BBB penetration.
• What is the role of P-glycoprotein in drug delivery to the brain?

  P-glycoprotein is a major efflux pump that expels toxins and can eject drugs before therapeutic concentrations are reached.
• How is pain defined?

  Pain is defined as an unpleasant sensory or emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage.
• What is nociception?

  Nociception is the way in which a noxious stimulus is relayed to the central nervous system.
• What are the two types of pain experienced?

  The two types of pain are nociceptive pain and neuropathic pain.
• How does fast pain differ from slow pain?

  Fast pain occurs ~0.1 seconds after a stimulus, while slow pain occurs ~1 second or more after a stimulus.
• What is superficial somatic pain?

  Superficial somatic pain is pain from skin nociceptors.
• What are commonly used analgesics?

  Commonly used analgesics include local anaesthetics, opioid analgesics, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
• How do local anaesthetics work?

  Local anaesthetics work by reversibly blocking the conduction of action potentials along nerves.
• What happens when enough Na+ voltage-operated channels are blocked by local anaesthetics?

  Normal nerve function is interfered with, stopping action potentials from being generated.
• Why is solution tonicity critical in medical applications?

  It affects the movement of water across cell membranes.
• What is the purpose of adding a vasoconstricting drug to local anaesthetics?

  To prevent the anaesthetic from being washed out of the area too quickly by the blood.
• What are opioid analgesics primarily used for?

  They are used to relieve pain.
• What significant discovery was made in 1972 regarding opioid drugs?

  The discovery of endogenous ligands led to the identification of opioid peptides and specific opioid receptors.
• What is opium and when was it introduced to Britain?

  Opium is an extract of the poppy Papaver somniferum, introduced to Britain around the end of the 17th century.