psychopathology

• Define abnormality


  Deviating from what is normal or usual, typically in a way that is undesirable or worrying.
• Give the 4 definitions of abnormality

  Statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately and deviation from ideal mental health.
• Outline statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality

  It is when a person's trait, thinking or behaviour is classified as abnormal if they are rare or statistically unusual. For example, if a person's IQ is above 140 or below 70 then they are seen as abnormal.
• Evaluate statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality

  STRENGTH- objective/scientific- mathematical nature makes it clear what is abnormal and it removes bias.

  WEAKNESS- unusual behaviours can be positive - IQ over 140 is abnormal but it is a desirable trait. So statistical infrequency cannot be used alone to make a diagnosis (reduces usefulness of definition).
• Outline deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality

  States that abnormal behaviour is anything that deviates significantly from a social norm. Social norms can be implicit (rules that are understood but not stated formally) or explicit (code of conduct or laws, usually written down, that can result in punishment if broken). They are also specific to the culture we live in.
• Give an example of deviation from social norms.

  A psychopath may be deemed abnormal because they don't conform to accepted moral standards. Diagnosed using DSM-5.
• Evaluate deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality

  STRENGTH- flexible depending on context - e.g. fully clothed when shopping but bikini on beach is fine. Provides understanding and less rigid than other definitions.

  WEAKNESS- May vary and evolve over time - Nymphomania refer to middle class women attracted to working class men, no longer abnormal to have relationships between classes in modern society. Internal validity reduced as our definition of abnormal must evolve over time as well so that the explanation does not lack temporal validity.
• Outline failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality

  It is failing to cope with demands of everyday life. The more VOVIMUS characteristics a person has then the more abnormal they are. Failing to function is part of the diagnosis of IDD (intellectual disability disorder) as well as low IQ
• What does VOVIMUS stand for?(Failure to function adequately) 


  Violation of morals/social standards, Observer discomfort, Vividness, Irrationality, Maladaptiveness, Unpredictability, Suffering.
• Evaluate failure to function adequately as a definition of abnormality

  STRENGTH- Supported by the GAF scale - objective as uses rating which cannot be changed.

  WEAKNESS- deviation from social norms - hard to tell apart, e.g. people with religious/supernatural beliefs could be seen as irrational. If we treat these as FTFA, we risk limiting personal freedom and discriminating against minority groups.
• Outline deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality

  It is a list of criteria that state what is healthy. Jahoda suggests 6 criteria to be seen as psychologically healthy: positive attitudes towards self, resistance to stress, accurate perceptions of reality, independence, self-actualisation, and environmental mastery. If not meeting any of the 6 then the person would be at risk of psychological illness.
• What does PRAISE stand for? (deviation from ideal mental health)

  Positive attitudes towards self, Resistance to stress, Accurate perceptions of reality, Independence, Self-actualisation, and Environmental mastery (adaptability).
• Evaluate deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality

  STRENGTH- benefit of having a positive outlook - provides broad range of criteria so encourages positive attitudes towards self. Identify characteristics rather than identifying the problem. Gives effective treatment strategies.

  WEAKNESS- Culture relativism - Ideas are specific to Western cultures, e.g. self-actualisation would be considered self-indulgent in most of the world. Not universal and limits generalisability of definition.
• Define phobia


  An irrational fear of an object or situation.
• Give the characteristics of phobias

  1. Behavioural (APE) - Panic, Avoidance or endurance
  2. Cognitive (SIC) - Selective attention, irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions.
  3. Emotional (A&E) - Irrational and unreasonable fear and anxiety
• What is the behavioural approach to explaining Phobias?

  The two-process model (proposed by Mowrer). This states that phobias are acquired by classical conditioning and then continue because of operant conditioning.
• Describe how the 2-process model explains phobias

  ACQUISITION BY CLASSICAL CONDITIONING- involves learning to associate something we initially have no fear(neutral stimulus) with something that already triggers a fear response (unconditioned stimulus). E.g. ''Little Albert''

  MAINTENANCE BY OPERANT CONDITIONING- For negative reinforcement, an individual avoids an unpleasant situation, this results in a desirable consequence so behaviour is repeated. Mowrer suggests we avoid phobic stimulus to escape fear and anxiety. Reduction in fear reinforces the avoidance, so the phobia is maintained.
• Outline the ''Little Albert'' case study

  Watson & Rayner (1920) created a phobia in a 9-month-old. Albert showed no unusual anxiety towards the white rat that he tried to play with. However, researchers would make a loud, frightening noise (UCS) close to Albert's ear whenever the lab rat was close to him. UCS creates a UCR of fear. When the rat (NS) and UCS were encountered together the NS became associated with the UCS and produced a fear response. Rat is now a learned CS that produces a CR. Albert displayed distress at the sight of other furry/white objects (conditioning generalised).
• What are the 2 methods for treating Phobias?

  Systematic desensitisation and flooding.
• Outline the 3 main processes for systematic desensitisation

  1. ANXIETY HIERACHY: A list of situations related to the phobia ranked for how much anxiety they produce.
  2. RELAXATION: Patients learn to relax as deeply as possible. E.g. imagery and/or breathing techniques. Reciprocal inhibition(impossible to be afraid and relaxed at the same time so one emotion prevents the other).
  3. EXPOSURE: Exposed to phobic stimulus whilst relaxed at each level of the anxiety hierarchy.
• What is flooding?


  A behavioural therapy in which a phobic patient is exposed to an extreme form of a phobic stimulus to reduce anxiety triggered by that stimulus.
• Outline flooding as a treatment for phobias

  It exposes patients to a very frightening situation without a build-up. It works by the extinction of the conditioned fear response, as patients quickly learn that the phobic stimulus is harmless. Patients must give informed consent and be prepared for flooding.
• Evaluate the 2-process model as an explanation for phobias

  STRENGTH: research support for CC- Little Albert case study. However, it's ungeneralisable (case study)

  STRENGTH: treatments- systematic desensitisation uses the principle of classical conditioning(CC). However, this is a time-consuming treatment.

  WEAKNESS: Incomplete explanation phobias-some aspects require further explaining. Evolutionary factors are important, e.g. fear of snakes helped to survive. It is adaptive to acquire such fears, this is called biological preparedness. Shows there's more to phobias than simple conditioning.
• Evaluate systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias

  STRENGTH: effective- Gilroy et al. found it was effective for treating arachnophobia in the short-term (3 months) and long-term (33 months). Effects are long-lasting.

  STRENGTH: acceptable to patients- prefer it to flooding as it has less trauma, reflected by low attrition rates of SD

  STRENGTH: suitable for a diverse range of patients- alternatives such as cognitive therapy/ flooding aren't. E.g. with learning disability. It would be difficult for them to understand what's happening in flooding and engage in cognitive therapies.
• Evaluate flooding as a treatment for phobias

  STRENGTH: cost-effective- found to be quicker and highly effective than alternatives, e.g. cognitive therapies. Free of symptoms quicker which makes treatment cheaper.

  WEAKNESS: less effective for some phobias-e.g. social phobias because they have a cognitive aspect, benefit better from cognitive therapies whereas flooding is better for simple phobias

  WEAKNESS: Traumatic- ethical but patients are often unwilling to see it to the end. Time and money are sometimes wasted in preparing only for patients to refuse to start/complete the treatment.
• What is systematic desensitisation?

  A behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning. Works as a new response to the phobic stimulus is learned (relaxation) and the relaxation prevents you from feeling afraid.
• Define depression

  A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels.
• Give the characteristics of depression

  BEHAVIOURAL: agitation, increased/decreased sleeping and eating, aggression and self-harm

  EMOTIONAL: lowered mood, anger towards self and others, low self-esteem

  COGNITIVE: poor concentration, negative bias, absolutist thinking
• Outline Beck's cognitive theory of depression as a cognitive explanation for depression

  FAULTY INFORMATION PROCESSING: attending to the negative aspects of a situation

  NEGATIVE SELF-SCHEMAS: negative information about ourselves is accessed whenever we encounter a self-relevant situation

  THE NEGATIVE TRIAD: negative views of the world, the self and the future
• Outline Ellis's ABC model as a cognitive explanation for depression

  ACTIVATING EVENT: a negative life event that triggers a response

  BELIEFS: beliefs that lead us to over-react to the activating event. Musturbation= belief that we must always succeed or achieve perfection. Utopianism=belief that life is always meant to be fair.

  CONSEQUENCES: depression results when we over-react to negative life events
• Evaluate Beck's negative triad as a cognitive explanation for depression

  STRENGTH: supporting evidence- Solid support for the idea that certain conditions make us vulnerable to depression(Clark and Beck). Grazioli and Terry: 65 pregnant women, those with higher cognitive vulnerability more likely to suffer post-natal depression.

  STRENGTH: practical applications in CBT- Negative thoughts can be identified and challenged by a therapist

  WEAKNESS: doesn't explain all aspects- Cannot easily explain extremes of anger or hallucinations, Cotard syndrome= delusion that they are zombies.
• Evaluate Ellis's ABC model as a cognitive explanation for depression

  STRENGTH: practical applications in CBT- irrational thoughts can be identified and challenged by a therapist.

  WEAKNESS: partial explanation- some cases of depression follow life events but not all. Reactive depression are cases of depression that follow activating events.

  WEAKNESS: doesn't explain all aspects- cannot easily explain extremes of anger or hallucinations and delusions.