Development

• What is a social construct?

  A concept that exists as the result of an interaction between people making up society
• What does deviance from social norms mean?

  When an act/behaviour goes against accepted social standards
• How is culture defined?

  A collective set of norms and values that determine the way of life of a group of people
• What is social learning theory?

  The theory that young children learn how to behave from observing and imitating others in society
• What is vicarious reinforcement?

  The idea that children learn how to behave by observing whether people are being rewarded or punished for their behavior
• What are the main stages of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

  1. Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
  2. Pre-operational Stage (2-7 years)
  3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
  4. Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)
• What is the key development in the Sensorimotor Stage?

  The development of object permanence
• What age range does the Pre-operational Stage cover?

  1. 7 years
• What are the characteristics of the Pre-operational Stage?

  Egocentrism, irreversibility, and lack of conservation
• What abilities develop during the Concrete Operational Stage?

  Understanding multiple properties of objects and beginning to read
• What is a key feature of the Formal Operational Stage?

  Children can form and test hypotheses
• What are the limitations of Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

  It is too reductionist and ignores environmental influences
• What was the aim of Piaget's (1952) study into the conservation of number?

  To see the stage of development when children are able to conserve
• What age group did Piaget's study focus on?

  Children aged 4-6 years in the pre-operational stage
• What research method did Piaget use in his study?

  Natural experiment and cross-sectional study
• What procedure was followed in Piaget's conservation study?

  Children were shown two identical rows of counters, one was stretched, and they were asked about the number of counters
• What were the findings of Piaget's conservation study?

  Children in the concrete operational stage understood that the number of counters remained the same despite appearance changes
• What are the limitations of Piaget's conservation study?

  It used only one task, had a small sample size, and was culturally biased
• What is a limitation of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

  It is reductionist.
• Why is Piaget's theory considered reductionist?

  It reduces cognitive development to a structured biological process, which is the same for each child
• What was the aim of Blackwell et al.'s (2007) study?

  To see the impact of growth mindset on maths ability
• How does Piaget's view on cognitive stages overlook external influences?

  He fails to consider the role of parents and others in a child's intellectual development.
• What is the consequence of Piaget's reductionist approach?

  It reduces the explanatory power of his theory.
• What age group did Blackwell et al. study?

  Children aged 11-12
• What empirical evidence challenges Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

  Only 50% of adults reach the formal operational stage.
• What does the evidence about adult development suggest about Piaget's theory?

  It suggests that there is no guarantee people develop through all the stages.
• What research method did Blackwell et al. use?

  Experimental study
• How does the fixed nature of Piaget's stages pose a criticism?

  It underestimates the age at which children can achieve different parts of the stage.
• What is one characteristic of the Sensori-Motor Stage?

  Object permanence is developed around 8 months.
• What procedure was followed in Blackwell et al.'s study?

  Children took a maths test and received feedback based on their mindset
• What is a key feature of the Pre-Operational Stage?

  Children exhibit egocentrism, only seeing the world from their own perspective.
• How does Piaget's theory describe children in the Concrete Operational Stage?

  They can think in concrete terms but struggle with abstract concepts.
• What were the findings of Blackwell et al.'s study?

  Growth mindset is related to positive impact on maths achievement
• What does the term 'decentring' refer to in cognitive development?

  It refers to a child's ability to see other people's points of view.
• What is one characteristic of the Formal Operational Stage?

  Children can engage in hypothetical thinking.
• What are the limitations of Blackwell et al.'s study?

  It had a small sample size and only tested maths ability
• What are the four stages of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development?

  • Sensori-Motor Stage (0-2 years)
  • Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)
  • Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)
  • Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)
• What is a criticism regarding the cultural bias in Piaget's research?

  He only used children from a Western society.
• Why does cultural bias reduce the credibility of Piaget's experiment?

  It limits the generalizability of the results to other cultures.
• What are Dweck's learning theories about mindsets?

  • Dweck's theory: Intelligence can be developed through experience and work.
  • Growth mindset: Intelligence is reflective of one's own talents.
  • Fixed mindset: Intelligence is predefined and unchangeable.