London - Urban Environments Case Study

• Character of London 


  • London is the UK’s capital and the largest city in the country, with a population of 8.8 million people. The city is located in the southeast of England on the River Thames.
  • The City of London spans 1.1 square miles in the central region of Greater London. Which encompasses a broader metropolitan area with a substantially larger population, reaching up to 45 miles from its centre.
  • London is split up into 32 local government districts which are commonly known as boroughs. 
• National Importance of London

  • UK’s largest and wealthiest city
  • During the twenty-first century, the gap in earnings and house prices has increased between the city and the rest of the UK meaning that many people have moved there looking for work.
• International Importance of London

  • London is one of the two most important financial centres in the world
  • The headquarters of many international companies are located in London. Therefore, the city attracts highly skilled workers from across the globe. 
  • London is also a national and international centre for education, media and communications networks, medical and legal facilities and culture, tourism and entertainment.
  • London has the second-best global air connections in the world after Dubai. It is home to the UK’s two busiest airports, Gatwick and Heathrow.
• Why has London Grown? National Migration

  • The city grew rapidly during the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century due to migration, mainly from other parts of the UK. 
  • However, the city’s population declined after the second world war because it was badly bombed but now London’s population has been increasing since 1991. It will likely grow and become a mega city by 2030 when the population reaches 10 million.
• Why has London Grown? Natural Increase

  • Young people, especially in their 20s and 30s, move to London for work. Employment opportunities, higher pay and the perception of a better social life attract them. They are also more likely to have children. That leads to a high rate of natural population increase in London 
• Why has London grown? International Migration

  • In the post-World War II era, London experienced significant immigration from former British colonies and Commonwealth countries, such as India, Pakistan, the Caribbean, and Africa. This added to the population and changed the city’s demographics. 
  • Also in the 2000s many Eastern European people moved over to look for work further increasing the population. 
• Why is London culturally diverse?

  • London has had waves of migrants arriving from different regions over many years. In the post-World War II era, London experienced significant immigration from former British colonies and Commonwealth countries.
  • Economic and Global Hub - As a major financial and trade center, London attracts people from all over the world seeking work and business opportunities.
  • Education - World-class universities and cultural institutions draw international students, researchers, and artists, enriching the city’s diversity.
• What are the main ethnic groups in London? Stats

  • 36% are White
  • 20% are Asian 
  • 13% are black
• Where do different ethnic groups live in London?

  • Croydon has the highest black population percentage in London at 22.5%
  • Redbridge in East London has an Asian population of 47.3% and in West London Harrow has an Asian population of 45.2%
  • In Harrow 28.8% of the population identifies as Indian
  • In Richmond 80.5% of the population are white
• Economic and Social issues in London

   London has had economic prosperity for many years however, housing, education, health, and employment disparities remain significant challenges. Inequities in life expectancy continue to be prevalent. The lowest life expectancy rates in London's most deprived areas are closely connected to inadequate nutrition, housing, education, and job opportunities.
• Wealthy areas - Kensington and Chelsea

  The borough of Chelsea and Kensington is the most affluent in Britain and home to some interesting attractions, with parades of shops and cafes to the greenery of Kensington Gardens. There are also some of London's museums located in South Kensington.  
• Wealthy areas - Kensington and Chelsea - Housing

  Very few derelict areas - old Victorian and Georgian houses have been regenerated.
• Wealthy areas - Kensington and Chelsea - Education

  Children are 4 times more likely to go to university. 80% of children have 5+ GCSE grades.
• Wealthy areas - Kensington and Chelsea - Health

  Skilled workers live on average 8 years longer than unskilled workers. The life expectancy for males is 84.18 and 87.86 for females.
• Wealthy areas - Kensington and Chelsea - Employment

  26% of households have a joint income for higher than £60,000. Unemployment rate is low at 3.9%. Average individual income is £50,000
• Poor Areas - Newham

  Newam is one of the 20% most deprived districts in England with high rates of homelessness and crime, about 20.1% of children live in low-income families.
• Poor Areas - Newham - Housing

  Housing is mainly old tower blocks from the 1960’s with poor heating systems and lots of damp.
• Poor Areas - Newham - Education

  By 16, children receiving free school meals achieve 1.7 grades lower at GCSE. Only 62% of children have 5+ GCSE grades.
• Poor Areas - Newham - Health

  The life expectancy for males is 78.97 and 83.1 for females.
• Poor Areas - Newham - Employment

  The unemployment rate is high at 9.4% which is the highest in the city. 26% of households have an income below £15,000. The average individual income in Newham is £25,000.
• Why can London be described as a city of two halves?

  There is a sharp division between areas of wealth and areas of deprivation. There are also many social and economic inequalities. There are also cultural differences in London because it is split up into 32 boroughs and some are very multicultural and some are not. There are also inequalities in housing, income and education. Places like Kensington and Chelsea are amongst the richest areas in the UK whereas places like Newham and Hackney are among the 20% most deprived.
• London's Poverty profile

  • 24% of Londoners are living in poverty
  • 34% of non-white households are living in poverty 
  • 47% of single parent households are living in poverty
• Air Quality and smog issues - Vehicles

  • Road vehicles which are the single biggest cause of London's air pollution. They produce nearly half of all nitrogen oxides and emit tiny particles of rubber and metal.
  • 57.6% of Nitrogen oxides is produced from transport
• Air Quality and smog issues - Industrial

  Industrial and commercial accounts for 35.% of Nitrogen oxides emitted
• What makes London's air quality even worse?

  The UK experiences increased frequency of light winds leading to the build up of locally emitted pollution.

  The sheer size of London, combined with a dense road network and tall buildings, means central London is one of the most polluted places in the UK, according to the London Air Quality Network. Pollution builds up when it becomes trapped between buildings, especially during still weather.
• Issues caused by pollution in London

  • Londoners are developing life-changing illnesses such as cancer, asthma and lung disease. Recent reports show a link between air pollution and an increased risk of developing dementia.
  • More than 500,000 Londoners live with asthma and are more vulnerable to the impact of toxic air - over half of these people live in outer London boroughs. Air pollution even contributes to the premature death of thousands of Londoners every year. 
• What is the UHI caused by in London?

  • Buildings and infrastructure which absorb and retain heat
  • Limited green space because there are fewer plants to absorb the air 
  • Traffic and industry which release heat and pollutants 
  • Pollution which traps the heat in the atmosphere
• Impacts of the UHI in London

  • The UHI can increase the temperature of London by 5-6oC
  • Higher temperatures which leads to more energy use such as air conditioning and lead to health risks

  The increased pollution can worsen air quality and therefore impacting of respiratory health

  The environmental stress can affect local ecosystems
• Flooding in London 


  • 15% of London is on a floodplain protected by flood defences 
  • The city is vulnerable to surface water and sewer flooding from storm and heavy rainfall events. This is due to the large areas of impermeable surfacing and the legacy of Victorian drainage systems that aren’t equipped to cope.
• Urban Sustainability in London - Transport

  The extension of the Jubilee Line has encouraged more people to use public transport and also the introduction of the Elizabeth line in 2022 which runs for 73 miles between Abbey Wood in Essex and Reading in Berkshire. The line has 41 stations and as a result has directly impacted the development of 55,000 new homes, with 60% of employment growth in Greater London within 1km of an Elizabeth line station and there are around 700,000 journeys on the line every weekday.
• Experience and attitudes of people living in London

  -Dissatisfaction is highest in the middle age bracket (25-49)

  -29% of people aged 18-25 are thinking about leaving London in the next 2 years

  -51% feel a need for more affordable housing

  -At least 48% of people in London feel fairly satisfied and 23% feeling very satisfied.
• Social Sustainability Challenges in London: Inequalities

  • 16% of Londoners are in the poorest tenth nationally, whilst 17% are in the richest tenth of people in the country.
  • The richest 10% of people in London have 60% of all assets whilst the poorest 80% of the population share just 20% of all asset wealth in London
  • These huge differences in wealth result in big differences in people’s access to and success with housing, education, health and employment.
• Social Sustainability Challenges in London: Housing

  •  More people in London rent than own their own house and those that rent pay more than half their weekly pay in rent. 
  • The average London house price is £688,935 compared to the national average house price being £232,000.
• Social Sustainability Challenges in London: Urban Deprivation

  • Unemployment levels are not evenly distributed or spread out in London. Areas like Newsham, Barking and Dagenham and Tower Hamlets have the highest unemployment rates in the capital.This can result in a cycle of urban decline
• Social Sustainability Challenges in London: Dereliction

  There is a large supply of brownfield land in London, which has been left and become derelict. In 2019 there were almost 3,000 brownfield sites in London, covering 2,600 hectares.
• Social Sustainability Opportunities in London: Recreation and Entertainment

  • It has a huge number of cultural attractions such as the British Museum, the National Gallery and the Natural History Museum. 
  • It has the West End where a huge number of shows can be seen and tourist attractions such as Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament. 
  • A mix of bars, restaurants and street entertainment are also common
• Social Sustainability Opportunities in London: Employment/salaries

  • Productivity in London is 40% higher than the UK average
  • London houses a major world financial centre and a range of business specialisms which attract a highly skilled workforce.
  • The average salary in London is £40,000 - £45,000 per year whereas in the rest of the UK it is £30,000 - £35,000 per year. 
• Social Sustainability Opportunities in London: Regeneration

  Stratford and the London Docklands
• Economic Sustainability Challenges in London: High Cost of Living

  • The average London house price is £688,935 compared to the national average house price being £232,000
  • The cost of everyday goods and services in London, from food to utilities, is much higher than in other parts of the UK. This disproportionately affects lower-income families.
  • Average rents for a one-bedroom flat in central London can range from £1,800 to £2,500 per month when the average income per month is £3,333 to £3,750. 
• Economic Sustainability Challenges in London: Income inequality and unemployment

  • London has a widening wealth gap. While there are many high-paying jobs in sectors such as finance, technology, and media, there are also significant numbers of low-paid workers in sectors such as hospitality, retail, and logistics.
  • The unemployment rate in London is about 5.6%, higher than the UK average of around 4.2%. In some boroughs, particularly in the East End and parts of South London, unemployment rates exceed 10%