Sexism

• Invisibility of women

  Maxine Bernstein + Nancy Russo (1974) found people were unable to identify female researchers (masculinist bias). They also argued that women are made invisible by the practice of adding first name initials.

  Steven Haggbloom (2002) published a list of the most important psychologists and only 6/100 were women.
• Invisibility of women

  Bonnie Stricklund (1987) found that 1/3 psychologists and 50% of those gaining PhDs were female.

  The Joint Council for Qualifications reported that 74% of A level students were female.
• Gender bias/differences

  Alpha bias- exaggerating the differences between men and women. Beta bias- exaggerating similarities between men and women.

  Freud exaggerated differences in relation to moral development which suggested women were less morally mature. Carol Gilligan (1982) argued that women speak in a different 'moral voice'.
• Gender bias/differences

  Eleanor Maccoby & Carol Jacklin carried out a meta-analysis and found no differences in psychological sex differences. However, they could be over-exaggerating differences showing alpha bias.
• Historical Content

  For at least half a century the study of psychology was taking place in a setting which actively devalued the contributions of women and ignored their views.

  Bonnie Stricklund (1987)- about 1/3 of all psychologists and over 50% gaining PhDs were female.
• Social Content

  The whole of society is 'patriarchal' and gender is a 'social construct'.

  Corinne Moss-Tacisin et al (2012) found that job applications with a female name were seen as 'less competent' by academics.
• Issue of Heterosexism

  Celia Kitzinger (1990)- homosexuality hardly features in undergraduate psychology courses leading to it being ignored.

  Freud stated homosexuality as being a product of a fixation in the phallic stage. But this could have been influenced by social attitudes at that time.
• Issue of Heterosexism

  Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) found homosexuality has gone through three distinct phases: heterosexual bias, liberal humanism and liberal humanism plus.
• Why are women over looked in research?

  Only the initials of first names are included