Thinking 1

• How does Duncker (1945) define a problem?

  A problem arises when a living organism has a goal but doesn’t know how to reach it.
• What are the three crucial elements of a problem?

  • Starting state
  • A set of processes (operators) to transform the starting state into the goal state
  • Goal state
• What is the main premise of the behaviourist approach to problem solving?

  Problem solving happens through an incremental process of trial-and-error.
• What does the Gestalt approach emphasize in problem solving?

  Problem solving happens through a process of restructuring and insight.
• According to behaviourism, how are behaviours learned?

  Behaviours are learned from interactions with the environment.
• What was the method used in Thorndike’s Puzzle Box experiment?

  A cat was placed in a puzzle box with a clasp, and it had to escape to reach food outside.
• What were the results of Thorndike’s Puzzle Box experiment?

  Cats learned to escape faster in successive trials as they associated pressing the lever with a reward.
• What does Thorndike's 'Law of Effect' state?

  Behaviours followed by pleasant consequences are likely to be repeated.
• What distinction did Gestalt psychologists make regarding thinking?

  They distinguished between reproductive thinking and productive thinking.
• What is the significance of Kohler's work with Sultan the chimp?

  Sultan demonstrated insight by combining two sticks to reach bananas outside his cage.

  
• How did Kohler's conclusions differ from Thorndike's regarding problem solving?

  Kohler viewed problem solving as resulting from sudden insight rather than incremental trial-and-error.
• What are the four stages of creative thinking according to Wallas (1926)?

  Preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.
• What occurs during the incubation stage of Wallas' theory?

  The problem is set aside, and no conscious work is done on it.
• What was the setup of Silviera's (1971) cheap necklace problem?

  Participants were given 4 chains with 3 links each and had to join them into a single circle at a cost of no more than 15c.

  
• What were the results of Silviera's (1971) experiment regarding incubation?

  85% of participants in the 4-hour break group solved the problem, compared to 55% in the control group.
• What did Murray & Denny (1969) investigate regarding incubation?

  They examined when a period of incubation is necessary for problem solving based on participants' abilities.
• What interaction effect was observed in Murray and Denny's (1969) results?

  High ability participants were hindered by breaks, while low ability participants benefited from them.
• What are some barriers to successful problem solving?

  1. Functional fixedness: Fixation on one property/function of an object.
  2. The Einstellung effect: Reliance on a previously successful strategy even when inappropriate.
• What did Duncker (1945) find regarding functional fixedness in his experiment?

  Participants often tried to use the box of nails as a candle holder only after it was emptied.
• What is the Water Jug Problem as described by Luchins (1942)?

  Participants must use jugs with specified capacities to measure out a final desired quantity.

  
• What is the Einstellung effect in problem solving?

  It is the negative effect of previous experience when solving new problems.
• What is the Nine Dot Problem as described by Scheerer (1963)?

  Participants must connect all dots with four continuous straight lines without lifting their pen.
• What is the "tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon" as described by Brown & McNeill (1966)?

  It is when individuals feel they are close to recalling a word but cannot retrieve it immediately.
• What percentage of the time are people correct in identifying the first letter of a word during the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?

  People are 57% correct in identifying the first letter of the word.
• What is the correct word for a navigational instrument used in measuring angular distances at sea?

  The correct word is 'sextant'.