gender bias

• • Psychologists possess beliefs & values influenced by the social & historical context within which they live. This may undermine psychologists’ claim to discover facts about human behaviour that are objective, value-free & consistent across time & culture (universability). One form of bias is gender bias: psychological theory & research may not accurately represent the experience & behaviour of women.
• Alpha bias exaggerates differences: Differences between the sexes are usually presented as real, fixed & inevitable. These differences occasionally heighten the value of women but are more likely to devalue females in relation to males
• An example of alpha bias is the sociobiological theory of relationship formation. Wilson (1975) explained human sexual attraction through ‘survival efficiency’ - it is in a male’s interest to try and impregnate as many females as possible to increase the chances of his genes being passed on to the next generation.  The female’s best chance to preserve her genes is to ensure the survival of the relatively few offspring she may produce.
• An example of alpha bias is the sociobiological theory of relationship formation. Sexual promiscuity in males is naturally selected & genetically determined but females who engage in the same behaviour are seen as going against their ‘nature’ - an exaggeration of the difference between the sexes (alpha bias)
• • Beta bias minimises differences: ignoring or misunderstanding differences between men and women often occurs when female participants are not influenced in the research process & it’s assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes 
• • An example of beta bias is the flight or fight response: Early research into flight or fight was based exclusively on male animals, the flight or fight response seemed to be a universal response to a threatening situation. Taylor et al. (2000) suggest female biology has evolved to inhibit the fight or flight response, shifting attention towards caring for offspring (tending) and forming defensive networks with other females (befriending). Females exhibit a tend & befriend response governed by the hormone oxytocin
• One consequence of beta bias is androcentrism: If our understanding of ‘normal’ behaviour comes from research involving all-male samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard is judged as ‘abnormal’ or ‘inferior’. This leads to female behaviour being misunderstood. For example, Many feminist object to the category of PMS because it medicalises female emotions by explaining these in hormonal terms. But male anger is often seen as a rational response to external pressure (Brescoll & Uhlman 2008)
• • A03: Limitation is a problem of gender bias in psychological research: Gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour & validate discriminatory practices. It may provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society (e.g. because of PMS). Gender bias in research isn’t just a methodological problem but can have damaging effects which affect women.
• • Another limitation is that gender bias promotes sexism in the research process: A lack of women at senior research level means female concerns may not be reflected in research questions asked. Male researchers are more likely to have work published. Also, female participants in lab studies are in an inequitable relationship with a researcher who has the power to label them irrational. This means psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in shaping future research
• • Limitation: Walkerdine (1990) reports how ‘scientific’ research in the 1930s showed that intellectual activity (e.g. attending university) shrivelled a woman’s ovaries & harmed her chances of giving birth. Essential accounts are often politically motivated arguments disguised as biological ‘facts’. This can create a ‘double-standard’ in how the same behaviour is viewed from a male perspective & female perspective