Environmental Global Governance

• What is the Tragedy of the Commons?

  • the situation where individuals who have open access to a resource and who live without formal rules and social structures act independently according to their own self interest
  • they act in a way that is contrary to the common good of all users, leading to the depletion of the resources due to their fear of losing out on the resource
• What is the relative gains problem according to realists? How can it be overcome

  • the belief that whilst being focused on maximising their gains, states are also cautious of the gains or other state because they don’t want to end up weaker than them
  • this might mean that they refuse to cooperate because they belief that other states will have more gains than them, which puts them at a disadvantage
  • it can only be overcome if states believe that the gains from cooperation are so large that it doesn’t matter, such as in matters of national security
• Why do realists believe that climate change could pose a national security issue?

  • climate change intensifies existing conflicts and exacerbates instability
  • climate change destabilises states, threatens lives and disrupts economies; for example: droughts led to the price of wheat being doubled in the lead up to the 2011 Arab Uprising
• What was the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)?

  • international treaty agreed at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit
  • States that sign the UNFCCC agreed to work together under UN guidance to create international agreements & commitments
  • Focus was on limiting the global average temperature rises
• What did the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) do?

  • created 3 categories for countries with different levels of responsibility

  1. Advanced economies - they should do the most to cut emissions and provide financial support for others; e.g: USA, UK, France, Germany & Australia
  2. Economies in transition - they do not receive and are not expected to provide financial support ; e.g: Russia, Turkey, Ukraine & Poland
  3. Countries that can expect financial support - China, India, all African Union members & Saudi Arabia
• What were the successes of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)?

  1. signed by 197 states
  2. create a foundation of cooperation that led to other agreements due to frequent meetings such as the 1997 Kyoto Protocol & the 2015 Paris Agreement
  3. had high legitimacy as an international treaty, so if states chose to withdraw, their international reputation would be negatively impacted
• What were the failures of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)?

  1. lack of enforceability - states can still withdraw if they want to
  2. differing status of countries’s responsibilities
  3. changes over time so is outdated as China and India are entitled to financial support but have large economies today
  4. rich countries may not want to give up their relative gains to help others
  5. neglects the responsibility of category 2 and 3 countries, putting the burden solely on category 1 countries
• What was the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCCC)?

  created in 1988 to provide govts and other decision makers with expert advice
• What does theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCCC) do?

  • carries out regular, unbiased and scientific assessments of climate change causes, risks, impacts and extent
  • suggests possible solutions to reduce/ manage impacts of climate change
• What are the successes of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCCC)?

  1. involves hundreds of scientists - 721 experts from 90 countries participated in its 6th review in 2022, with 44% coming from developing states and states in transition
  2. First Assessment Report (1990) - confirmed the role of human activity in increasing greenhouse gases contributing to climate change
  3. Fifth Assessment Report (2015) - showed that 1983-2013 was the warmest 30-year period in the last 1,400 years
  4. seen as a credible, trusted and neutral evidence base with good representation
• What are the failures of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCCC)?

  1. lack of enforceability - they just provide advice and can’t actively enforce change
  2. lack of accessibility
  3. You need internet access to access their work, which not everyone has
  4. Could be complicated for people to understand - long reports - difficult for both governments and the public
  5. Not all states are contributing to the research
• What was the Montreal Protocol (1989)?


  Aimed to protect ozone layer by banning CFCs and other chemicals whose emissions harm the ozone layer and lead to temperature rises
• What did the Montreal Protocol (1989) do?

  led to the banning of CFCs
• What were the successes of the Montreal Protocol?

  1. ratified by 197 states
  2. First example where something was ratified and came into force, which was later used for other agreements e.g. 2015 Paris agreement
  3. Set precedent - precautionary principle - you have to prove that something is not harmful - even though scientific proof about CFCs had not been fully completed at the time, the agreement was taken as a precaution
  4. Created principle of inequality - some states need to do more than others
  5. had overall consensus from states - did not require self-interests of states
• What were the failures of the Montreal Protocol?

  1. its principle of inequality could be taken too far in future agreements
  2. More powerful states might not be incentivised to cooperate if they feel that they would have to do more than other states
  3. could lead to a lack of consensus due to gridlock
• What was the Rio Earth Summit (1992)?

  • 172 govts met for 2 weeks, including 112 heads of state and thousands of NGOs
  • its key goal was to get states to agree on a framework for future climate action
• What did the Rio Earth Summit do?

  • created the Rio Declaration, a framework for future action
  • an agreement was reached to establish the UNFCCC
• What were the successes of the Rio Earth Summit?

  1. the Rio Declaration said that
  2. all economic progress required environmental protection
  3. development today should not threaten the needs of present & future generations
  4. more scientific research is needed and states should share research & technologies
  5. locked states into agreeing to having annual negotiations (COP meetings) through establishment of the UNFCCC
• What were the failures of the Rio Earth Summit?

  1. Less specific action agreed which doesn’t address immediate concerns of climate change and requires more action to be taken later
  2. the UNFCCC suffers due to its lack of enforceability and the differing status of countries’ responsibilities
• What was the Kyoto COP & Protocol (1997)?

  • it was the first attempt at holding states accountable through legally binding commitments
  • was the first time the focus on was on specific actions to reduce climate change
• What did the Kyoto COP & Protocol (1997) do?

  created the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, which set legally binding targets to reduce emissions and states were required to submit progress reports monitored by the UN
• What were the successes of the Kyoto COP & Protocol (1997)?

  1. The EU reduced emissions by around 8%
  2. ensured collective action by making sure it would only become legally binding when 55 states ratified it
  3. Had a time limit set of 2012 for targets to be met and new ones to be agreed
  4. states were incentivised to invest into emission reduction in other states though a system of ‘carbon credits’ that counted as part of their target
  5. 37 countries pledged to stricter targets in the 2nd commitment period of 2012-2020, which the UN estimated cut emissions by 25% by 2018
• What were the failures of the Kyoto COP & Protocol (1997)?

  1. Lack of enforceability - Brazil, China, India & South Africa were exempt as well as 100 developing states, which led the US to reject the treaty
  2. Canada withdrew when they missed their emission targets
  3. Protocol did not come into force until 2005, even though the original time period was 1997-2012. Meanwhile, emissions increased by 40-50% between 1990 and 2009
  4. China did not sign and estimated that its emissions increased by nearly 300% during the treaty’s lifetime & Russia did not sign until 7 years after the summit
• Why was the Montreal Protocol more successful than the Kyoto Protocol?

  1. set a precedent as first example of something being ratified and brought into force to be used in later agreements
  2. Did not require the self-interest of states due to focusing on CFCs, which their economies were less dependent on
  3. More enforceable as it included larger states as well as smaller ones, and therefore had more global compliance
• What was Cop 15 - Copenhagen (2009)?

  • Forum to discuss the replacement for the Kyoto Protocol which expired in 2012
  • its key aim was to get big polluters to agree to collective action, such as the US, as well as address the contributions of developing states
• What did Cop 15 - Copenhagen (2009) do?

  • established the 2009 Copenhagen Accord, to continue the work of the Kyoto Protocol
  • its implementation was set to be reviewed in 2015
• What were the successes of Cop 15 - Copenhagen (2009)?

  1. agreed to limit temperature rises to less than 2 degrees celsius
  2. pledged $100 billion in resources for developing states by 2020
  3. introduced the Green Climate Fund to help with climate related projects in developing states
  4. required states to make their plans to cut carbon emissions by 2020 public
  5. First time China & India agreed to the principle that they would reduce emissions (although not binding)
• What were the failures of Cop 15 - Copenhagen (2009)?

  1. No legally binding targets
  2. Unanimous support was not agreed as it was unclear whether it represented a formal UN agreement in international law
  3. No sanctions for states that missed emissions targets
  4. Negotiations were not inclusive as Obama made separate negotiations with BRICS countries where it was said they agreed to the 2 degree limit but other states had not seen their deal
• What was Cop 21 - Paris (2015)?


  a meeting which aimed to set comprehensive, unified and legally binding targets
• What did Cop 21 - Paris (2015) do?

  • created the 2015 Paris Agreement, which set the official 2 degree limit and agreed to collectively review progress every 5 years
  • committed to a process of ‘pledge and review’ where states set out ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’ (NDCs) and had these committed targets reviewed by the UN
• What were the successes of Cop 21 - Paris (2015)?

  1. First legally binding commitment to collectively reduce emissions (but the individual targets for each state weren’t binding)
  2. by 2021, 190 states had joined who contribute 95% of emissions including US & China (who between them contribute 40%)
  3. pledged a fund of $100 billion by 2020 for climate finance
  4. ensured state commitment - once a state ratified, they had to wait 3 years to withdraw (meaning Trump had to wait until Nov 2020 and couldn’t immediately withdraw when he was elected. Biden rejoined hours after becoming president in Jan 2021)
• What were the failures of Cop 21 - Paris (2015)?

  1. failures of the ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’ (NDCs)
  2. in the aim of reducing inequality between states, states got the ability to set their own individual targets, but these were not legally binding
  3. a 2020 UN report found the G20 states (78% emissions come from) were not on track to meet their NDCs
  4. its funding pledge of $100 billion by 2020 was not met
• What was COP 29 - Azerbaijan (2024)?

  • known as the ‘finance COP’
  • was criticised for being yet another COP hosted in an oil state
• What were the failures of COP 29 - Azerbaijan (2024)?

  1. Final text pledged $300 billion annually for developing countries by 2035 but the G77 said it would require $1.3 trillion by 2035 from historic emitters such as US & EU + criticism from India, Nigeria & Bolivia - seen as a ‘death sentence
  2. Failed to reach agreement on fossil fuels as Saudi Arabia refused to accept any text “targeting specific sectors, including fossil fuels”
  3. Delegate for Azerbaijan said that natural resources including gases were a ‘gift from God’, undermining consensus built at Paris on carbon neutrality
• What are the main strengths of international meetings?

  1. Can have high enforceability if states can overcome their self-interest - 2015 Paris (ratified and can only withdraw 3 years after- Trump)
  2. Widespread international consensus and inclusivity - 197 states ratified the Montreal Protocol
  3. Can have feasible and specific goals - Glasgow 2021 on coal, bilateral agreement on methane, deforestation & banning of CFCs in 1989 Montreal Protocol
• What are the main criticisms of international meetings?

  1. Lack of ambition and slow pace - COP 29 due to Saudi Arabia’s refusal to accept any text regarding fossil fuels
  2. Lack of enforceability- Egypt 2022 due to certain nation states backsliding on commitments, COP15 @ Copenhagen 2009 due to lack of legally binding targets, 1992 Rio Earth Summit due to lack of specific action agreed, Kyoto Protocol due to Canada withdrawal, and mass exemptions from BRICS and USA
  3. Lack of feasibility around funding - Cop 29 Azerbaijan funding gap, COP 26 Glasgow in 2021 $100 billion annually pledge not met
• What is ecologism?

  • belief that nature has inherent value
  • environmental problems are a result of human attitudes to nature as we see the environment as a resource for us to exploit for our own benefit
  • belief in the existence of an environmental crisis with environmental problems being interconnected
  • belief that the main way to deal with environmental problems is by valuing nature as inherently important
• What are the two types of ecologism?

  • reformist/ shallow green ecology
  • radical / deep-green ecology
• What are the ideological roots of reformist / shallow green ecology?

  • anthropocentrism - the idea of humans being at the centre of nature, which explicitly states that humans are the only living things with intrinsic value and all other living things are there to sustain humanity’s existence. nature is seen as an instrument
  • Utilitarianism – conserving resources maximises the welfare or happiness of people, taking account of both the living and of people who have yet to be born.
  • Often attributed to US philosopher Anthony Weston
• What are the ideological roots of radical / deep-green ecology?

  • eco-centrism - recognises a nature-centred system of values, and states that all living things have an equal inherent intrinsic worth regardless of their usefulness to humans. The earth is valued not as a commodity belonging to us but a community to which we belong.
  • Also has Religious/spiritual roots such as Buddhism and Taoism and the notion of Mother Earth in the so-called Gaia hypothesis
  • Often attributed to Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess