Approaches

• 17th - 19th century psychology

  Psychology is a branch of the broader discipline of philosophy

  Psychology - experimental philosophy
• 1879 psychology


  Wilhem Wundt

  First experimental psychology lab in Germany and psychology emerges as a distinct principle in its own right
• 1900s psychology


  Sigmund Freud

  Influence of unconscious mind on behaviour (psychodynamic approach), person centred therapy, psychoanalysis, physical concepts can be explained in terms of conflicts within the mind
• 1913 psychology


  John B Watson 

  Wrote the book 'Psychology as the Behaviourist Views it'

  B. F. Skinner 

  Establishes behaviourism 
• 1950s psychology


  Carl Rogers

  Humanistic approach, 'third force', rejects behaviourism and psychodynamic, behaviour not caused by external influence and emphasises importance of self-determination and free will

  Introduction of Computers

  Gives metaphor for operations of the human mind

  Cognitive approach, looks at cognitive processes with a more scientific outlook
• 1960s psychology


  Albert Bandura

  Social Learning Theory, draws attention to the role of cognitive factors, bridge between cognitive approach and behaviourism 
• 1980s onwards psychology


  Biological approach

  Dominant psychological scientific perspective, advances in technology that increase understanding of brain and biological processes 
• Eve of 21st century psychology

  Cognitive neuroscience, how biological structures influence mental states, links cognitive and biological approaches
• Introspection


  Wilhelm Wundt (1879) in Lepzig, Germany

  First lab dedicated to psychology, beginning of scientific psychology and first systematic attempt to study the mind under controlled conditions

  Aim to analyse the nature of human consciousness and develop theories on mental processes

  Wundt and co-workers recorded their experiences of stimuli like a metronome then divided observations into three categories: thoughts, images and sensations

  Structuralism, isolating the structure of consciousness in this way, stimuli experienced in the same order with the same instructions
• Evaluation of Introspection

  (+) Scientific

  Systematic and well controlled in lab environment

  Procedures and instructions standardised

  (-) Subjective Data

  Self-report

  Demand Characteristics

  Difficult to establish meaningful laws of behaviour

  Unscientific to todays standards

  (+) Forerunner

  Wrote first academic journal for psychological research and first textbook

  Father of modern psychology

  Foundation for other approaches such as behaviourist and cognitive
• Psychology as a Science

  1900s - Behaviourism

  Introspection subjective data so difficult to establish general laws

  Truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed objectively and measured

  1950s - Cognitive Approach

  Digital revolution, likened the mind to a computer

  Tested predictions about memory and attention

  1980s - Biological Approach

  Advances in technology used to investigate physiological processes as they happen with brain scanning technology

  New methods such as genetic testing also allow better understanding of the relationship between genes and behaviour
• Science


  A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to discover general laws.
• Evaluation of Psychology as a Science

  (+) Modern Psychology

  Same aims as natural science: to describe, understand, predict and control behaviour

  Learning approaches rely on scientific methods

  (-) Subjective Data

  Not all approaches use objective methods

  Humanism, individual and subjective experience

  Psychodynamic, case studies which are unrepresentative samples

  Humans are active participants in research so are responsive to things like demand characteristics

  (-) Paradigm

  Kuhn - any science must have a paradigm

  Psychology does not have a paradigm as there is so much internal disagreement
• Paradigm


  A set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who work within that subject agree on
• Psychodynamic Approach


  Sigmund Freud (1900s)

  Little Hans

  Conscious, only the 'tip of the iceberg'

  Subconscious, storehouse of biological drives and instincts

  Preconscious, thoughts and memories not currently in conscious but can be accessed

  Repressed or forgotten memories accessed through dreams or slips of the tongue (parapaxes)

  Personality tripartite: Id, Ego and Superego, interact alongside defence mechanisms

  Development occurs in 5 stages, conflicts must be resolved to successfully progress to the next stage, if not leads to fixations and certain behaviours
• Defence Mechanisms

  Unconscious strategies the Ego uses to manage the conflict between Id and Superego

  Prevent us from being overwhelmed with temporary threats or traumas

  Often distort reality

  Long term psychologically unhealthy and undesirable

  
  

  Repression - Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind

  Denial - Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality

  Displacement - Transferring feelings from true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
• Psychodynamic Approach - Personality

  Tripartite personality:

  Id - pleasure principle, unconscious primitive drives and instincts that are entirely selfish and demands instant gratification of its needs. Only part present at birth.

  Ego - reality principle, mediator. Reduces the demands of the Id and Superego by employing defence mechanisms. Develops around 2yrs.

  Superego - morality principle, internalised sense of right and wrong. Represents the moral standards of the child's same sex parent and punishes the Ego for wrongdoing by guilt. Formed at the end of the phallic stage (6yrs).
• Psychodynamic Approach - Psychosexual Stages

  Child development occurs in five stages marked by a conflict (apart from latency)

  The child must resolve the conflict to progress to the next stage, any left unresolved leads to a fixation where the child becomes stuck and carries certain behaviour and conflicts associated with that stage throughout adulthood

  Oral (0-1yrs) - Focus of pleasure is the mouth

  Anal (1-3yrs) - Anus

  Phallic (3-6yrs) - Genital area

  Latency - Earlier conflicts repressed

  Genital - Puberty and conscious sexual desires
• Psychosexual Stages: Oral


  First stage, birth until 1 year old

  Focus of pleasure is the mouth

  Mother's breast is the object of desire

  Consequences of unresolved conflict are:

  Oral fixation, smoking, biting nails, sarcastic, critical
• Psychosexual Stages: Anal


  Second stage, 1 to 3 years old

  Focus of pleasure is the anus

  Gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces Consequences of unresolved conflict are:

  Anal retentive, perfectionist, obsessive

  Anal expulsive, thoughtless, messy
• Psychosexual Stages: Phallic


  Third stage, 3 to 6 years old

  Focus of pleasure is the genital area

  Child experiences the Oedipus complex or Electra complex

  Consequence of unresolved conflict is phallic personality, narcissistic, reckless, possibly homosexual
• Psychosexual Stages: Latency


  Fourth stage

  Earlier conflicts repressed
• Psychosexual Stages: Genital


  Fifth stage

  Conscious sexual desires alongside the onset of puberty

  Consequence of unresolved conflict is difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
• Psychodynamic Approach - Unconscious

  The conscious mind is only the tip of the iceberg

  Most of the mind is made up of the unconscious

  Unconscious is a storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour and personality

  It also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed or forgotten

  These can be accessed by dreams or slips of the tongue

  Under the surface of the conscious is the preconscious which contains thoughts and memories not currently in conscious awareness but accesssble if desired
• Oedipus Complex

  Boys in the phallic stage

  Develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and murderous hatred of father who is his rival

  Fear father will castrate them so repress feelings and identify with their father inheriting his gender role and moral values
• Electra Complex

  Girls in the phallic stage

  Penis envy

  Desire their father

  Penis primary love object

  Hate mother

  Replace desire for father with desire for a child which they identify with their mother in the process
• Psychodynamic Approach: Little Hans

  Case study

  Five year old boyPhobia of horsesPhobia developed when he saw one collapse on the streetClaims the phobia was displacement where his repressed fear of his father was transferred onto horsesHorses merely a symbolic representation of Hans's real unconscious fear of castration during the Oedipus complex
• Strengths of Psychodynamic Approach

  (+) Real-world applicationPsychotherapy, brings repressed emotions into conscious so they can deal with it, forerunner to modern talking therapiesPsychoanalysis first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than physically with a range of techniques (+) Ability to explain human behaviourKey for first half of the 20th century, used to explain wide range of phenomena Connection between childhood experiences and later development(+) PsychoanalysisAnxiety from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and overuse of defence mechanisms
• Negatives of Psychodynamic Approach

  (-) Success with mild neuroses but inappropriate and harmful for more serious disorders

  Schizophrenia, losing grip on reality and cannot articulate their thoughts required by psychoanalysis

  (-) Untestable concepts

  Popper, doesn't meet scientific criterion of falsification

  Not open to empirical testing 

  Many concepts occur in unconscious 

  Based on subjective case studies of single individuals so hard to generalise universally

  (-) Concepts and processes to specific age determined stages but very little further development after genital stage
• Humanistic Approach


  Rogers and Maslow

  Humans are self-determining, affected by external and internal influences but effectively active agentsHumans are unique so care should be subjective and person-centredMaslow's hierarchy of needs describe the motivations towards self actualisationIndividual's concept of the self has congruence with their ideal self Too big a gap leads to incongruence and negative self-worthTo reduce the gap Rogers developed client-centred therapy
• Self-actualisation


  The innate desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one's full potential, becoming what you are capable of
• Hierarchy of Needs


  Maslow

  Motivates our behaviourIn order to achieve our primary goal of self-actualisation, and fulfil their potential deficiency needs must be metPersonal growth is an essential part of being human

  Lowest to highest needs

  Physiological

  Safety and security

  Love and belonging

  Self-esteem

  Self-actualisation
• Strengths of Humanism


  (+) Not reductionistAdvocates holism where a subjective experience can be understood by considering the whole person(+) OptimisticPositive image of the human conditionPeople are basically good and free to work towards the achievement of their potential and in control of their lives(+-) ApplicationThe approach has been described as abstract ideasRogerian therapy in counselling techniquesMaslow's hierarchy of needs used to explain motivations, especially in the workplace
• Drawbacks of Humanism


  (-) Short on empirical evidenceNo measurable independent and dependent variables(-) Western cultural biasA lot of the ideas more readily associated with individualist culture in the Western worldCollectivist culture emphasises the need of a group, community and interdependence so autonomy or self-actualisation (+-) ApplicationThe approach has been described as abstract ideasRogerian therapy in counselling techniquesMaslow's hierarchy of needs used to explain motivations, especially in the workplace
• Conditions of Worth


  When a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children 
• Congruence


  Whent the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match
• Person-centred therapy


  Rogers

  Form of psychotherapy

  Led to counselling

  Clients not patients as they are the expert of their own condition

  Encouraged towards discovery of own solutions in warm, supportive and non-judgmental atmosphere

  Therapist provide genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard

  Aim to increase self-worth and reduce incongruence

  UK and US use similar techniques

  Focuses on present

  Effective for mild conditions
• Cognitive Approach


  1950sScientificInvestigates areas of behaviour neglected by behaviourists such as memory, perception and thinkingPrivate processes must be inferred by behaviourBehaviour result of schemas, and theoretical and computer modelsCognitive neuroscience allows the brain to be mapped and the influences of brain structures to be monitoredNurtureRat-man
• Strengths of the Cognitive Approach

  (+) Objective Scientific MethodsHighly controlled vigorous methods including lab environmentsReliable, objective dataNeuroscience allows biology and psychology to be coherent (+) Real-world applicationDominant approach in psychology todayApplicable to practical and theoretical contextsAI and robotsTreating depression, combined with CBT which identifies and eradicates faulty thinking assumed to be root cause of maladaptive behaviourUnderstanding of child development, intellectual development increasingly complex schemaEye-witness testimony
• Negatives of the Cognitive Approach

  (-) Abstract and theoreticalInference rather than direct observationResearch tends to use artificial stimuliTherefore may lack external validity(-) Machine ReductionistSimilarities between the mind and computers (inputs, outputs, storage systems, central processor), seen as information processing machineIgnores the influence of emotions and motivation which may influence our ability to process informationResearch found human memory can be affected by emotional factors, anxiety on eyewitnessesLower validity(+-) Soft DeterministMake choices based on schema