political

• States act as the principal actors, making or breaking global governance initiatives. Nothing is agreed globally unless states agree to take action; they are the building blocks of unified action. States have the power to opt out of or block agreements, making global action and agreements meaningless unless states give them meaning.
• International law is largely unenforceable, with no single body to enforce it. It is often optional and requires states to actively sign up in order for the law to cover them. States can also withdraw from treaties that they have signed if they change their minds. There is also a lack of international enforcement - even if states have signed up to international law, few bodies can hold them accountable and force them to change their behaviour.
• Rogue states


  These states, particularly those in which there is an illegitimate government that is exceeding its powers (such as North Korea), often have no desire to be a part of any systems of global governance.
• Failed states


  These states are not fully in control of their internal governance, such as Somalia, and are rarely effective participants in global governance since they cannot yet hold authority over their own populations. In failed states, insurgent groups, such as Boko Haram in Nigeria, often take over regions.
• Powerful states


  These states can pick and choose which global agreements they are part of, and simply ignore international pressure (as seen by Russia's actions in Ukraine as well as the US' withdrawal from the Paris Agreement)
• The UN formed a month after the end of World War 2, replacing the League of Nations. Initially made up of 51 members, there are now 193 members of the UN. It has become a highly respected IGO, seen as both legitimate in its own right and a source of legitimacy - for example, becoming a UN member is a significant confirmation of statehood for new states. Member states of the UN agree to uphold the UN charter.
• The UN founding objectives:

  • To maintain international peace and security
  • To maintain friendly international relations
  • To promote respect for fundamental human rights
  • To uphold respect for international law
  • To promote social progress

  Chapters VI and VII of the UN charter set out the UN's powers to resolve disputes between nation-states using peaceful and military means, respectively.
• UN principal organs - the Secretariat


  Oversees the work of the entire UN and its subsidiary bodies and agencies, and is run by the UN secretary-general. The secretary-general’s role includes acting as the UN’s public spokesperson and setting the UN agenda, to be approved by consensus with UNGA member states. The secretary-general is appointed by the UNGA on the recommendation of the UNSCA for a 5-year term.
• Limitations of the Secretariat and secretary-general

  The security-general’s powers are limited, but the role usually carries considerable persuasive or soft power. Some have used the role to set a decisive agenda for the UN, such as when Kofi Annan led the Millenium summit and report which led to the agreement of the MDGs (Millenium Development Goals). However, the the public statements of the secretary-general might also be ignored, particularly if not backed by the UNSC.
• UN principal organs - the Security Council


  The UNSC is the most powerful branch of the UN. It can issue economic sanctions and binding resolutions in international law, authorise military action and decide whether new member states should be recognised by the UNGA. It is the supreme decision-making body for international crises, and is made up of five permanent members (the USA, UK, China, France and Russia), who can veto any resolution, and ten UNGA-elected non-permanent members who serve two-year terms.
• Limitations of the UNSC veto

  The veto can prevent action from being effectively or efficiently taken. This was the case when China and Russia both vetoed a 2011 resolution condemning slaughter in Syria to protect their own national interests: China wanted to get away with mistreating Tibetans and Uyghurs and was therefore fearful of condemnation, and Russia wanted to protect its naval presence in Syria. However, having the veto prevents conflict between these major powers, as it means they must all agree when military action is taken.
• Limitations of the UNSC

  It might be argued that the UNSC gives too much power to ‘outdated’ countries (UK and France), remaining uninclusive of new powers (Brazil, India, etc.). France and the UK haven’t vetoed since 1989, perhaps signalling that they don’t want to have their relevance or place in the UNSC called into question. Additionally, the UNSC ignores the needs of the developing world by prioritising very powerful nations. Increasing permanent membership, however, could make military action take even longer to respond to crises.
• UN principal organs - the General Assembly

  The UNGA is a forum where all 193 member states have an equal voice and vote - it is the only UN organ in which every member state has a permanent representative. Its primary functions include electing UNSC non-permanent members, electing ECOSOC members, appointing the secretary-general and electing judges to the ICJ. The UNGA also considers and debates reports from the ICJ and ECOSOC, and NGOs are often allowed to attend and address meetings, widening the inclusivity of the UNGA as a debate forum.
• Criticisms of the UNGA

  UNGA resolutions are non-binding and unenforceable, making them irrelevant. Additionally, the UNGA is subordinate to the UNSC on matters of peace and security, and has a lack of power despite being the only ‘global forum’ for debating international issues. Still, the UNGA can succeed where the UNSC fails: when the UNSC was unable to condemn the Syrian government for human rights abuses in 2017, for example, the UNGA passed a resolution that did.
• The equality of nation-states within the UNGA, where each is given one vote, makes consensus difficult to achieve, but it prevents larger or more powerful nation-states from dominating. For example, despite protests from Israel and the US (both of which are significant world powers), Palestine was granted non-member observer status in 2012. This allowed it to join the ICC and therefore have the ICC investigate Israel's alleged war crimes in Palestinian territory.
• UN principal organs - the Economic and Social Council

  ECOSOC is responsible for economic security and development across the UN’s member states. It is made up of 54 member states, elected by the UNGA for 3-year terms. Its key functions include acting as a forum for debate, agreeing on specific policies that can be implemented by other UN agencies (such as the WHO) and leading on international development goals (the MDGs and SDGs).
• Limitations of ECOSOC

  It passes resolutions which are drafted and voted in by member states, but are not necessarily binding on member states - ECOSOC’s role in respect of human rights is merely one of monitoring. However, the initiation of the MDGs in 2000 gave greater focus to ECOSOC and therefore significant responsibility for overseeing progress towards targets. For example, ECOSOC manages a forum which monitors progress towards the SDGs (Sustainability Development Goals) and meets annually. Some of ecosoc’s specialised agencies, such as the IMF, are highly influential bodies.
• During the Cold War, both the US and the Soviet Union frequently used the UNSC veto, reflecting the bipolarity of the world order. After, the US became the most frequent user as it became the dominant unipolar power. Since 2001, Russia and China have been increasingly willing to veto, perhaps signaling rising multipolarity.
• In 1967, the UNSC called on Israel to withdraw from occupied territory in the Gaza Strip, Golan Heights and West Bank. Israel continues to occupy this territory, not complying with the resolution.
• The UNSC successfully passes many resolutions. It has authorised over 70 peacekeeping missions around the world and imposed successful sanctions on regimes posing a risk to international security, such as those imposed on Iran when it did not comply with a resolution suspending Iran's nuclear development.
• The UNSC veto creates 'great power unanimity', preventing conflict between the most powerful states by ensuring they all agree to resolutions passed.
• ECOSOC played an important role during the Covid-19 pandemic. It warned that states might prioritise economic recovery over SDG fulfilment after the pandemic, reversing progress, and worked to coordinate international procurement of vaccines. The WHO, as one of ECOSOC's agencies, was part of the effort to improve access to vaccines worldwide as part of the COVAX programme.
• UN principal organs - the International Court of Justice

  The key functions of the ICJ are to settle legal disputes between member states and give advisory opinions on legal questions. It is not a criminal court, and cannot investigate crimes, but focuses on disputes over territory and breaches of other international laws and treaties. It has 15 independent judges which do not represent their home state.
• Limitations of the ICJ

  States are only subject to ICJ ruling if both sides agree that the court has jurisdiction, effectively consenting to be subject to ICJ decisions - this has allowed states to declare that they do not recognise the court's authority when they don't like its decisions. Enforcement of ICJ rulings is dependent on the UNSC, but this is rare, allowing rulings to be ignored.
• How has the UN been effective in maintaining peace and security?

  The UNSC has been active in approving peacekeeping and military operations, such as in Libya. Nuclear proliferation has been controlled, with few new nuclear weapon states emerging, and the UN has succeeded where the League of Nations failed in preventing another World War - even inter-state war has decreased significantly since its founding.
• How has the UN been ineffective in maintaining peace and security?

  The UN has struggled to respond to threats from non-state actors, such as al-Qaeda, and was largely sidelined during the War on Terror while the US acted in Iraq without UN involvement or authorisation. Peacekeepers have seen failures in Somalia, Rwanda and Bosnia, where they have been unable to have a positive impact unless peace was already in place. Civil war has increased, and the UN was not designed to deal with internal conflict.
• Strengths of treaties

  They allow states to form agreements on any issue, are targeted and specific (allowing states to retain control over their sovereignty as they can pick and choose agreements), and represent formal international law, increasing likelihood of enforcement.
• Weaknesses of treaties

  Enforcement and accountability are more likely, but not guaranteed. Additionally, states can choose not to sign and ratify them - for example, the US notably refused to sign up to the 1997 Kyoto Protocol despite being a major polluter.
• The NPT (Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons) has 190 signatories, including the five UNSC permanent members, which all have nuclear weapons. This commits them to not sharing nuclear technology and to disarmament. North Korea, which withdrew in 2003, is the only state to have successfully developed nuclear weapons since the 1980s. South Africa gave up its nuclear weapons entirely when it signed the treaty.
• Set up in 1949 to provide collective security, NATO (the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) currently has 31 members. Article 5 states that an attack on one of them is considered an attack on all, which might result in a collective military response.
• NATO's changing role

  The end of the Cold War and decline of the USSR led to a shift, as ex-communist states saw NATO membership as a way of embedding stability. Then, the 9/11 attacks led to NATO invoking article 5 and playing a role in Afghanistan, where they maintained a presence between 2003 and 2021 as part of the 'war on terror'. Some have questioned NATO's relevance after the Cold War, with president Trump regularly complaining that the US was contributing too much to NATO's budget.
• Strengths of NATO

  It is a collective security agreement between the allies with the capacity to act and agree. NATO provides vital protection for smaller and weaker states, particularly those bordering Russia, creating a strong deterrent and balance of power in Western Europe. It also provides an organised, collective military force which is in a constant state of readiness - this is useful in a world of declining national defence budgets, especially one backed by the world's military superpower.
• Weaknesses of NATO

  It is reliant on the US military and economic power, with the risk of European states becoming overreliant on the US. The security dilemma might suggest that NATO's growing role since the Cold War has once again rekindled tensions between Russia and the West, and unity in NATO might be seen to be fragmenting, with tensions growing between the US and Turkey as well as Western European allies and the US under Trump.
• NATO's first military operations after the Cold War were focused on humanitarian crises within Europe, and didn't necessarily protect NATO member states - for example, the 1995 air strikes against the Bosnian Serbs and 1999 air strokes against the Federal Yugoslav Republic (only the first of these was authorised by the UNSC). Since 2001, NATO's operations have expanded to the Middle East and South Asia.