Atypical Gender Development

• What does gender dysphoria describe?

  Discomfort from mismatch of sex and gender identity
• In which manual is gender dysphoria recognized as a psychological disorder?

  DSM-5
• What are the two types of explanations for atypical gender development?

  • Biological Explanations
  • Social Explanations
• What are the biological explanations for atypical gender development?

  • Brain-Sex Theory
  • Genetic Factors
• What are the social explanations for atypical gender development?

  • Social Construction
  • Psychoanalytic Theory
• What does the brain-sex theory suggest about gender dysphoria?

  It has a basis in brain structure
• Which brain structure is involved in emotional responses related to gender dysphoria?

  Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis
• What did Kruijver et al (2000) find about the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis?

  It is larger in men, female-sized in transgender women
• How does Zhou et al (1995) relate to transgender individuals' experiences?

  It fits reports of feeling born the wrong gender
• What did Coolidge et al (2002) assess in their study on gender dysphoria?

  Monozygotic and dizygotic twins
• What percentage of variance in gender dysphoria did Coolidge et al (2002) attribute to genetic factors?

  62%
• What did Heylens et al (2012) find regarding monozygotic and dizygotic twins?

  39% of monozygotic twins were concordant
• What does the concordance rate in Heylens et al (2012) suggest about genetic factors?

  Indicates a role for genetic factors in gender dysphoria
• What did Rametti et al (2011) study regarding white matter in transgender individuals?

  • Regional differences in white matter
  • Corresponded to identified gender before hormone treatment
• What did Pol et al (2006) find about brain changes during hormone treatment?

  Size of Bed Nucleus changed significantly
• What implication does the research by Kruijver et al (2000) and Zhou et al (1995) have on hormone therapy?

  Differences may be due to hormone therapy
• What does social constructionism suggest about gender identity?

  • It is shaped by societal concepts
  • Gender dysphoria arises from societal pressures
• What cultural example does McClintock (2015) provide regarding gender categorization?

  5-a-reductase deficiency in the Sambia
• What happens to individuals with 5-a-reductase deficiency at puberty?

  Testes descend and clitoris enlarges
• What does psychoanalytic theory suggest about the cause of gender dysphoria?

  • Social relationships within the family
  • Extreme separation anxiety in boys
• How does Ovesey & Person (1973) explain gender dysphoria in males?

  Through extreme separation anxiety before identity formation
• What consequence does the fantasy of fusion with the mother have in boys according to Ovesey & Person?

  They adopt a woman’s gender identity
• What does social constructionism highlight about gender identity in different cultures?

  • Recognition of more than 2 genders
  • Challenges traditional binary classifications
• What does the increasing number of non-binary individuals suggest?

  Cultural understanding is evolving
• What limitation does Ovesey & Person’s theory have regarding biological females?

  It does not account for gender dysphoria in females
• What did Rekers (1986) find about gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth?

  More likely associated with absence of a father
• What is a strength for Biological Explanations for Atypical Gender Development?

  Other Brain Differences

  • Rametti et al (2011) studied white matter, in which there are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in male and female brains
  • Rametti et al (2011) analysed the brains of both male and female transgender individuals before they began hormone treatment and in most cases, the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded closer to the gender they identified with
  • This suggests that there are early differences in the brains of transgender individuals
• What is a limitation for Biological Explanations for Atypical Gender Development?

  Contradictory Evidence

  • Pol et al (2006) studied changes in transgender individuals’ brains using MRI scans taken during hormone treatment, in which the size of the Bed Nucleus of the Stria Terminalis changed significantly over that period
  • Kruijver et al (2000) and Zhou et al (1995) examined the brain post-mortem and after the individuals had undergone hormone treatment
  • This suggests that any differences may have been due to hormone therapy, rather than gender dysphoria
• What is a strength for Social Explanations for Atypical Gender Development?

  Social Constructionism

  • Some cultures recognise more than 2 genders, such as the fa’afafine of Samoa, which challenges traditional binary classifications of male and female
  • Increasing numbers of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to catch up with the lived experience of many
  • This suggests that gender identity is best seen as a social construction rather than a biological fact
• What is a limitation for Social Explanations for Atypical Gender Development?

  Psychoanalytic Theory

  • Ovesey & Person’s (1973) explanation does not provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females, as the theory only applies to biological men
  • Research by Rekers (1986) found that gender dysphoria in those assigned male at birth is more likely to be associated with the absence of a father than the fear of separation from the mother
  • This suggests that psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive account of gender dysphoria