Gender

• Sex

  A persons biological status as either male or female
• Gender

  A persons psychological status as either masculine or feminine
• Gender dysphoria

  When a person believes their biological sex does not reflect the way they feel on the inside and the gender they identify themselves with
• Sex-role stereotypes

  A set of expectations held by people in a society or culture of what is acceptable behaviour for a male and female

  These expectations are transmitted throughout society and enforced by parents, peers, media and even schools
• Androgyny

  Displaying a balance between masculine and feminine characteristics
• Bem Sex Role Inventory

  Bem (1974) developed a method for measuring androgyny and suggested being androgynous is associated with psychological well-being. This is because individuals who are androgynous are better equipped for a variety of different situations

  There are 60 different characteristics (20 feminine, 20 masculine, 20 neutral) in the BSRI and respondents are required to rate themselves on a 7-point scale

  Scores are then classified as either masculine, feminine, androgynous or undifferentiated
• Androgyny evaluation

  One strength of Bem’s work is that androgyny is measure quantitatively which is useful when it is necessary to quantify a dependent variable. However, Spence (1984) argues there is more to gender than a set of behaviours so qualitative methods offer a better way of analysing gender. This shows both quantitative and qualitative approaches are useful for studying androgyny
• Chromosomes

  Made from DNA

  Genes are short sections of DNA that determine the characteristics of the human

  There are 46 chromosomes in the human body which are arranged into 23 pairs, the 23rd pairs determines the biological sex

  All egg cells produced by an ovary have an X chromosomes

  All sperms carry an X or Y chromosome
• Hormones

  A biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs

  They appear in large quantities but disappears quickly

  Their affects are very powerful

  There is three main kinds of hormones; testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin
• Testosterone

  A male hormone and controls the development of male sex organs during foetal development

  According to the evolutionary explanation, high levels of testosterone are limited to aggression because it is adaptive
• Oestrogen

  A female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation

  Can cause some women to experience heightened emotionality and irritability during their menstrual cycle, this is referred to as premenstrual tension (PMT) or premenstrual syndrome (PMS) and is a diagnostic disorder
• Oxytocin

  Typically produced more in women than men due to giving birth

  The hormone stimulates lactation, making it possible to breastfeed their child

  It is released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth and makes new mothers feel ‘in love’ with their baby

  Often know as the ‘love hormone’
• Case of David Reimer

  Bruce Reimer was castrated at six months accidentally after a circumcision gone wrong

  Raised as a female for most of his childhood and called Brenda

  When told he was biologically a male he adjusted quickly and easily without any issues
• Role of chromosomes and hormones evaluation (strength)

  Wang et al (2000) found a link between testosterone & sexual behaviour was confirmed. Male hypogandism is a condition caused by a man’s testes failing to have normal levels of testosterone. 227 men testosterone therapy for 180 days, it improved sexual function, libido & mood, there was also increases in muscle strength. This shows testosterone has a direct influence on sexual arousal & physical development in adulthood.
• Wang et al counterpoint

  O’Conner conducted a double-blind study, increased testosterone levels in young men, they found no significant increases in interactional & non-interactional components or aggression levels which suggests there is no effect on sexual behaviour
• Roles of chromosomes & hormones evaluation (limitation)

  The social factors are ignored Hogstede et al (2010) claim gender roles around the world are much more a consequence of social norms than biology

  Countries that place individual competition and independence above the needs of the community are more masculine in their outlook
• Roles of chromosomes & hormones evaluation (limitation)

  It is reductionist meaning accounts that reduce gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones have been accused of ignoring alternative explanations
• Atypical chromosomes

  Atypical sex chromosomes patterns is any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX/XY formation and is normally associated with distinct phtsical or psychological symptoms
• Klinefelter’s syndrome


  Affects about 1 in 600 males and people with this condition are biologically male and have an extra X chromosome
• Klinifelter’s characteristics

  Physical characteristics: reduced body hair, some breast development around puberty (gynecomastia), have long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals, problems with co-ordinations

  Psychological characteristics: poorly developed language skills and reading ability, tend to be shy, passive and lack interest in sexual activity, tend not to do well in stressful situation, have problems with ‘executive function‘ like memory & problem-solving
• Turner’s syndrome

  1 in 5,000 females

  Caused by an absence of one of the X chromosomes (X0)

  Affected individuals have 45 chromosomes instead of 46 chromosomes
• Turner’s characteristics

  Physical characteristics: do not have a menstrual cycle (amenorrhoea), their ovaries don’t develop and they are infertile, doesn’t develop breasts at puberty and have a ‘shield’ chest, low ears, ‘webbed’ neck, adults with Turner’s look physically immature

  Psychological characteristics: higher-than-average reading ability, performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is often lower than average, tend to be socially immature, have trouble relating to their peers, experience difficulty fitting in
• Atypical chromosomes evaluation (strength)

  By comparing people who have these syndromes with chromosome-typical individuals it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the two groups. Can be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis & are a direct result of the abnormal chromosomal structure. This supports that innate ‘nature’ influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour.
• Atypical chromosomes evaluation (limitation)

  Counterpoint to nature-nurture debate

  The relationship between atypical chromosomes patterns associated with Klinefelter’s & Turner’s syndrome and the differences in the behaviour is not casual

  It may be that environmental and social influences are more responsible for the behavioural differences observed

  Social immaturity seen in Turner’s syndrome could be from people treating them immaturely

  This shows it could be wrong to assume the psychological & behavioural differences are due to nature
• Atypical chromosomes evaluation (strength)

  Continued research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of Turner’s and Klinefelter’s as well as more positive outcomes in the future

  An Australian study (Herlihy et al) of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s syndrome showed that treatment from a young age experienced significant benefits in management

  Suggests increased awareness does have a useful real-world application
• Atypical chromosomes evaluation (limitation)

  In order to identify the characteristics it is necessary to identify individuals with the disorder and build a database

  This way we can see the full range of characteristics from mild to severe

  Mainly only those who have the most severe symptoms are identified meaning the picture of typical chromosomes are distorted

  Boada et al (2009) reported that prospective studies have produced a more accurate picture of the characteristics

  This suggests the typical picture of Klinefelter’s & Turner’s syndrome may be exaggerated
• Kohlberg’s theory (1966)

  Based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age

  Link with age is not because of experience but as a r3sukt of biological maturation

  Gender development is thought to process through three stages (identity, stability, constancy)

  Understanding of gender runs parallel to intellectual development as the child matures biologically
• Gender identity

  Around 2 years old children are able to identify themselves as a boy or girl

  At 3 years old most children are able to identify other people as boys or girls

  Often children of this age group do not view gender as fixed
• Gender stability

  At 4 years old they have the realisation that they will always stay the same gender

  However they cannot apply this concept to everyone else in other situations and are often confused by external changes in appearance
• Gender constancy

  At 6 years old children recognise that gender remains constant across time and different situations

  This understanding is applied to other people’s gender as well as their own

  Gender constancy is also significant as children will begin to seek out gender appropriate role-models to identify with and imitate
• Kohlberg’s theory evaluation (strength)

  Evidence suggests that gender stereotyping does emerge around the age of 6 as predicted

  Damon (1977) told a story about a boy who played with dolls to children. 4 year olds said it was fine for the boy to be playing with dolls but the 6 year olds said that it was wrong

  They had gone beyond understanding to developing rules about what they’re supposed to do which suggests they have formed rigid stereotypes on gender-appropriate behaviour
• Kohlberg’s theory evaluation (limitation)

  Counterpoint to Damon

  Other r3search challenges the idea that an interest in gender appropriate behaviour only develops around 6

  Basset & Bandura (1999) found that children as young as 4 reported feeling (good) about playing with gender-appropriate toys and ‘bad’ about doing the opposite

  This contradicts Kohlberg’s theory but may support gender schema theory
• Kohlberg’s theory evaluation (limitation)


  It relies on unsatisfactory methods to assess gender constancy. Bem criticised the methodology used in many studies of the link between gender and cognitive development. Bem argued that younger children are confused by this as we use appearance to separate gender. In reality the best way to identify makes & females is through physical differences like genitalia. Bem found 40% of children aged 3-5 demonstrated constancy. This suggests the regular way of testing constancy may misinterpret what younger children actually know.
• Kohlberg’s theory evaluation (limitation)

  Other researchers suggested there may be different degrees of constancy. Martin et al praise Kohlberg’s theory for recognising that children’s understanding of their own & other people’s gender guides their thoughts and behaviours. Martin et al suggest there may be different degrees of constancy. An initial degree that orient children the importance of gender and a second degree which can develop later which heightens childrens responsiveness to gender norms, particularly conditions of conflict. This suggests constancy may be a more gradual process
• Gender schema theory

  Martin & Halverson (1981) believe that once a children has established gender identity they will begin to search the environment

  Gender schema: a set of beliefs and expectations related to gender derived from experience
• Gender schema after gender identity

  Once a child has established gender identity they will begin to search the environment for information that encourages development of mental schema

  Contrasts with Kohlberg’ view that this process begins after they have progressed through all three stages around 7 with gender constancy
• Gender schema determine behaviour

  Expands to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits

  For young children, schemas are likely to be formed around stereotypes and these provide a framework that directs experiences and a child’s understanding of themselves

  By 6 yrs old children have a fixed and stereotypical idea about what is appropriate for their gender

  For this reason children seem to misremember information that doesn’t fit with their existing schema
• In group information better remembered

  Children tend to have a better understanding of the schema that is appropriate to their own gender

  Consistent with the idea that children pay attention to information relevant to their gender identity

  Not until children are older that they develop elaborate schema for both gender

  Ingroup identity serves to bolster the child’s level of self-esteem
• Gender schema theory evaluation (limitation)

  Gender identity probably develops earlier than Martin & Halveeson suggested, a longitudinal study of 82 children looked at the onset of gender identity. Data was obtained from twice-weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language from 9 to 21 months. Children began to identify themselves as boy or girl on average at around 19 months. This suggests that children actually have a gender identity but just can’t communicate it.
• Gender schema theory evaluation (strength)

  Counterpoint

  May not be appropriate to argue about specific ages, they suggest the key point is the shift in a child’s thinking and the ages are averages rather than absolutes.

  It is possible that some children may be quicker or slower at some stages. This suggests that zosuls et al finding isnt a fundamental criticism of the theory