Regionalism and the EU

• What is regionalism?


  the idea that nation-states in a certain geographically defined area are united by common; goals, incentives, interests and aims
• What are the three types of regionalism?

  • economic
  • political
  • security
• What is economic regionalism?

  • States that have shared economic aims and incentives to cooperate may form a regional bloc based around trade deals (such as NAFTA)
  • Seek to remove protectionist barriers (tariffs, quotas etc)
  • Creates economic interdependence (liberalism!)
  • Economic blocs may be outward looking, forming trade deals with other blocs - are a bigger trading power
  • Limited erosion of sovereignty (except the Eurozone and the ECB!)
• What is political regionalism?

  • aims on focusing political power and influence
  • proponents argue its benefits local populations
  • requires deeper integration and a shared common value system
  • requires a pooling of sovereignty but makes the states more influential collectively
• What is security regionalism?

  • strengthens regional borders and involves militaristic alliances or agreements
  • these usually centre around a common threat to a region
  • often formed due to shared political ties (NATO)
  • e.g: EU’s Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) = v. controversial: the fear of member states that they could be locked into future courses of action based on today’s decision due to its binding nature
• In what 2 ways do regional organisations make decisions?

  1. intergovernmentalism
  2. supranationalism
• What is intergovernmentalism?


  when member states make all the decisions - there are no separate institutions and states cannot be forced to do anything they do not agree with e.g. African Union
• What is supranationalism?


  when the regional organisation makes all the decisions and imposes them on its member states. E.g. in the EU, the European Commission can propose new laws and in many policy areas, the law will be agreed if at least 55% of the member states representing at least 65% of the EU population agrees in its Council of Ministers
• What are the advantages of intergovernmentalism?

  • Every decision made has been agreed to by all the states involved - more consensus - no tyranny of the majority
  • Maintains state sovereignty
  • Flexible - states can choose to do things, they don’t feel coerced to make a decision - low enforceability, membership is likely to be higher
• What are the advantages of supranationalism?

  • Easier to agree on things in times of crisis - takes less time to agree - can respond faster - less gridlock
  • Formal voting system - help with representation
  • High accountability and enforceability - they can impose decisions on states
• What is the Arab League?

  • set up in 1945 with 6 countries initially (Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia and Syria), with Yemen joining months later
  • now has 22 members but Syria is suspended
  • aims to promote economic growth and trade, as well as maintain sovereignty and encourage political stability in the region
• What is ASEAN?

  • founded by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand in 1967
  • aim = enhance economic cooperation in the region
• What is the African Union?

  • founded by former colonies that gained independence in 1963 as the Organisation of African Unity (OAU)
  • became the AU in 2001 as states began to cooperate on both security and development issues - sent peacekeepers to Somalia and as a bloc, also threatened to withdraw from the ICC, stating that is biased against Africans
• How does regionalism positively impact globalisation?

  • enhances globalisation by making it manageable and and ‘smaller’ - global village - meaning the ‘global’ and ‘local’ begin to merge
  • regional blocs organise states into those that have similar goals, making the processes of global governance more efficient
  • regionalism is compatible with globalisation - it involved similar processes of cooperation, multilateralism and governance, just on a smaller scale
  • outwardly looking regional blocs want to make the most of global networks and are simple acting as a larger unit than a nation-state
• How does regionalism negatively impact globalisation?

  • regional egoism - some regional blocs could only be interested in the concerns of their region and are fairly isolationist in policy
  • blocs may implement protectionist policies that limit free movement of global trade
  • global division - instead of enhancing a global community and a global civil society, it further divides the world into segments. this leads to the restriction of global cosmopolitanism
  • diversity - regional blocs are all quite different in character, meaning they cannot effectively act together to organise global relations
• What are the 7 aims of the EU?

  • peace and security
  • economic union
  • political and social union
  • judicial and policing
  • human rights
  • environment
  • poverty
• How does the EU work towards peace and security?

  • very successful in preventing violence between its member states
  • In 1951, France, West Germany, Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg signed the Treaty of Paris, which established the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) as the coal and steel-rich regions between France and Germany were key natural resources having been fought over in two world wars.
  • clear mission to promote liberal values and won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2012 in recognition of its advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights across Europe
• How does the EU work towards economic union?

  • deepening of economic and monetary union - In 2002, the euro was officially implemented
  • Before the euro, the EU had created a common market with freedom of movement for people, goods and services.
  • The Four freedoms of movement are key features of the European Single Market; People, goods, capital, and services.
  • Issues with the Euro: Creation of institutions like the European Central Bank which has the power to set monetary policy for the whole Eurozone area, ensuring members of the Eurozone all tax and spend responsibly.
• How does the EU work towards political and social union?

  • created a forum for its member states to work together in order to agree laws and other measures to tackle the challenges facing all member states.
  • For social policy, the European Social Fund gives money to projects aiming, for example, to reduce unemployment.
  • Around 10% of the EU budget is spent on the Social Fund.
  • harmonised labour laws through directives, with social policy on matters as diverse as working hours and unemployment rights. A key argument of the UK's ‘Leave’ campaign was that the EU was creating too many directives.
• How does the EU work towards judicial and policing?

  • close cooperation on justice and policing matters between member states, including coordination of law and enforcement on matters such as international terrorism and organised crime.
  • The European Arrest Warrant allows for a police force in one member state to issue a warrant and for police in any other member state to arrest the individual wherever they may be.
• How does the EU work towards human rights?

  • The ECHR was created in 1953, aiming at preventing a repeat of human rights abuses committed during WW2.
  • also established its own Charter of Fundamental Rights, which sets out specific rights that should be in place for all Europeans.
  • The EU has been criticised for lacking the means and will to intervene militarily to uphold human rights.
  • as a response, in 1992, the European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations was set up to provide humanitarian aid and emergency aid workers and respond to natural disasters and crises.
• How does the EU work towards environment?

  • introduced environmental laws at regional level that have not been possible to agree at international level
  • The creation of trade laws as part of the Single Market has allowed the EU to develop laws protecting the environment as part of the same process. E.g EU member states have agreed to legally binding targets on reducing emissions and developing renewable energy technology.
• How does the EU work towards poverty?

  • world’s largest aid donor – in 2015 $15 Billion was provided in development aid with the largest sum going to Europe itself.
  • However, some have criticised the EU’s Common Agricultural policy for making it harder for farmers in developing states outside the EU to sell their produce within the EU.
• How has the EU developed over time?

  1. creation of the ECSC in 1951
  2. 1957 Treaty of Rome led to EEC and key agreements like the CAP & CFP
  3. UK joined the EEC IN 1973
  4. 1986 Single European Act prepared for Single Market in 1992
  5. 1993 Maastricht Treaty set up 4 freedoms, introduced Euro, established Common Foreign and Security Policy
  6. 1999 euro introduced 11 countries, b4 Greece in 2001, physical form in 2002; created European Monetary Union
  7. 2008-9 ‘PIIGS’ were in a deep sovereign debt crisis
  8. 29 March 2017, Article 50 triggered in the UK after Brexit ref
• What is the European Council?

  • Composed of heads of state and foreign ministers + president of Commission
  • Offers strategic guidelines (setting policy guidelines, resolving disputes between member states, agreeing reforms of EU treaties, steering EU foreign policy), focused on longer-term decision making
  • Intergovernmental: each member state is represented and is acting on its own behalf. Heads of state and foreign ministers retain reasonable amount of control in steering the EU on behalf of their own sovereign interests
  • was responsible for signing off the Brexit deal
• What is the European Central Bank?

  • Responsible for economic governance of eurozone
  • Sets interest rates for the zone
  • Supranational - decisions made by the ECB are binding on all eurozone states only
  • represents the 19 countries in the eurozone - only has jurisdiction on eurozone countries
• What is the European Parliament?

  • Only elected body (MEPs elected every 5 years)
  • made up on MEPs from the 27 member states, tend to be organised (and sit) by political group/ ideology rather than nationality
  • Scrutinise rather than create legislation, make amendments and pass EU laws
  • Supranational: legislation it votes in becomes legally binding on member states
• What is the European Commission?

  • Supranational - no duty to their home state so make decisions for the EU
  • Main executive body
  • Only part that can propose new laws (regulations)
  • 27 commissioners are duty bound to promote the interests of the EU and not their home state
• What is the European Court of Justice?

  • Judicial body, interprets and adjudicates EU laws and treaties
  • Supranational: EU law has primacy over national law giving overarching authority to ECJ decisions
  • ECJ has power to disapply domestic laws
• What is the European Council of Ministers?

  • Compromises of 27 ministers accountable to their own governments
  • focusing on more day-to-day/ shorter-term decisions
  • Intergovernmental: use the qualified majority voting system where 15 out of 27 ministers must be in favour of a proposal OR it is supported by member states representing at least 65% of the total EU population
• What is the timeline of the European Monetary Union (EMU)?

  • In 1978 European Exchange Rate created to tackle fluctuating exchange rate
  • 1992 Maastricht treaty agreed to a project to establish a single currency across the EU to achieve close economic and monetary union.
  • 1996 Dublin summit, the Stability and Growth Pact created to ensure budgetary discipline to maintain stability.
  • Euro = physical form in 2002 across 19 countries & is the 2nd largest & 2nd most traded currency after the dollar.
  • The UK & Denmark kept their own currency and most newer EU members don't meet criteria to join
• What are the positives of EMU membership?

  • stabilises the currency - lessens impacts of economic crises
  • strengthens the European economy
  • facilitates trade and business across the EU so they don’t have to worry about exchange rates
  • less vulnerable to world currency markers - in the IMF and WB, the EU is able to counterbalance the USA
  • helps to create regional identity
• What are the potential drawbacks of EMU membership?

  • erodes economic/ national sovereignty - monetary policies
  • harder for newer countries to join
  • is the criteria outdated?
  • can currency be linked to cultural identity?
  • democratic deficit? - ECB regulates policies but aren’t elected
• What are the constraints and obstacles affecting the EU’s economic influence?

  • Fallout from 2008 Financial Crisis: German taxpayers bailing out PIIGS (Portugal, Italy, Ireland, Greece, and Spain)
  • Economic strain caused by widening of membership to weaker economies
  • In the first year of implementation of the current CAP (2023-27), EU farmers faced challenges to fully comply with some of the standards beneficial to the environment and climate like the requirement to maintain permanent grassland (GAEC 1)
• What are the constraints and obstacles affecting the EU’s structural influence?

  • Democratic deficit contradicts its promotion of democracy and freedom: EU citizens with no vote in supranational bodies (led to Brexit?)
  • Brexit may undermine EU influence with USA (Trump) and within IMF
  • Impingement on state sovereignty (migrant crisis and border controls)
• What are the constraints and obstacles affecting the EU’s military influence?

  • Lack of central military: reliant on NATO
  • Pro-EU centralisers such as Macron have tentatively suggested an EU army and been rebuffed
  • No clear access to nuclear weapons - down to individual states
• Arguments that show the view that the EU is a significant player in the global theatre

  1. by nominal GDP, the EU is nearly the same size as the United States and 63% larger than China
  2. structural power, being influential in a number of IGOs - institutions like the ICC and WTO would not exist in their current form without the conditionality imposed by the EU
  3. The desire for states to join = exhibits its soft power - accession negotiations are currently ongoing with Serbia, Albania & Ukraine
  4. the EU have headed military operations in Bosnia, Congo, Somalia, and Mali
• Arguments that show the view that the EU is overstated as a significant player in the global theatre

  1. EU single market threats of slow growth and austerity - the 2008 FC hit the EU hard (e.g PIIGS), not immune to fluctuating global markets
  2. lack of central authority = lack of cohesion over key policy areas such as migration, undermined by right-wing nationalism - UKIP & Brexit Party in European Parliament elections
  3. militarily weak, lacks a central standing army, relies on NATO for defence. During Kosovo, EU was seen as weak against genocide.
• Does the EU have strong structural and soft power?

  YES

  • Even though EU law imposes no legal obligation to implement sanctions, Europe acted against Putin’s annexation of the Crimea IN 2014
  • institutions like the ICC and WTO would not exist in their current form without the conditionality imposed by the EU

  NO

  • all European countries are democratic and economically interdependent, and they share uncontested borders
  • Brexit has undermined EU structural power in organisations like the World Bank and IMF. The US/UK special relationship helped to bolster the EU’s influence
• Does the EU have strong ‘hard’ military power?

  YES

  • The United States and Europe are allied through NATO
  • The Common Security and Defence Policy (enables the Union to take a leading role in peace-keeping operations, conflict prevention and strengthen international security
  • European military spending accounts for 15% - 16% of the global total. China runs third, with under 10%

  NO

  • lacks a central standing army, relies on NATO for defence
  • Europe’s militaries make their spending decisions separately