Respiratory system

• what are the symptoms of mitral valve disease?

  • heart murmur
  • shortness of breath
  • coughing
  • reduced exercise ability
• what is mitral valve disease?

  it causes the mitral valve to degenerate, so it does not close fully with each pump of the heart, this causes the blood to flow backwards.
• what is a heart murmur?

  an abnormal heart sound caused by abnormal blood flow through the heart
• what are the symptoms of a heart murmur?

  • coughing
  • weakness
  • problems exercising
• what is von willebrand disease?

  it is caused by an insufficient amount of clotting factor
• what are the symptoms of von willebrand disease?

  • unexplained bleeding
  • blood in urine or faeces
  • excessive bleeding from minor wounds or injuries
  • lameness in joints
• the nares are the avian equivalent to nostrils. the syrinx is used for vocalisation. the air capillaries are where gas exchange takes place
• the alveoli are tiny pockets in the lungs, with a rich blood supply, where gas exchange takes place
• • Inhalation: air passes through the larynx, trachea, and into the posterior sacs 
  • Exhalation: air moves from the posterior air sacs to the lungs via the ventrobronchi and the dorsalbronchi 
  • Inhalation: air moves from the lungs to the cranial air sacs 
  • Exhalation: air moves from the cranial air sacs through the syrinx, trachea and out to the nares.
• what is respiration?

  the release of energy from glucose, or other organic chemicals
• what is aerobic respiration?

  the release of oxygen from the breakdown of glucose by combining with oxygen
• aerobic respiration creates 38 energy molecules (ATP)
• aerobic respiration takes place where?

  the mitochondria
• anaerobic respiration is respiration without air
• anaerobic respiration is used when animals cannot exchange enough oxygen to carry out aerobic respiration
• how many ATP does anaerobic respiration create?

  two
• where does anaerobic respiration take place?

  the cytoplasm
• anaerobic respiration creates lactic acid which causes cramps. it can damage cells and tissues, but can be broken down using oxygen
• an oxygen debt will occur in order to pay back oxygen that has been used to break down the lactic acid. an increase in ventilation rate and deeper breathing will occur after anaerobic respiration has occurred, this provides the oxygen until the extra lactic acid has been broken down
• during exercise, muscles need more energy. heart rate and breathing need to increase, as oxygen is needed to make energy. blood flow and heart rate must increase as blood must deliver oxygen to the muscles
• at rest, the demand for energy is low. less oxygen is needed, so the breathing rate slows to normal. blood doesn't need to deliver the oxygen, so pulse rate slows to normal
• carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the air in the alveoli. oxygen diffuses from the air in the alveoli into the blood
• how are alveoli adapted for gas exchange?

  they are very thin and have a large surface area
• haemoglobin:

  • loads oxygen at the lungs, unloads at respiring tissues
  • loads co2 at respiring tissues, unloads it into the lungs
• haemoglobin carries four oxygen molecules, its shape changes to help pick up more oxygen
• oxyhaemoglobin is when haemoglobin reaches the lungs. high oxygen levels help the haemoglobin pick up oxygen in the lungs. then, haemoglobin carries the oxygen through the bloodstream to the body's tissues
• what is myoglobin?

  an oxygen and iron binding protein which releases oxygen to muscle cells when oxygen concentration is low
• myoglobin stores oxygen inside muscles so that it can be used when muscles need it most
• myoglobin carries one oxygen molecule, but has a much stronger hold on oxygen
• in muscle cells, myoglobin is usually empty, not holding oxygen.
• oxymyoglobin is the oxygenated from of myoglobin
• oxymyoghobin is in the tissues, where oxygen levels are low. myoglobin grabs the oxygen that is released by haemoglobin and forms oxymyoglobin
• a foetus cannot use its lungs, and so it relies on exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide via diffusion from its mothers blood
• foetal haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen, so it is more efficient at extracting oxygen from maternal circulation
• In the lungs, haemoglobin picks up oxygen from the air and becomes oxyhaemoglobin. This oxygen is then carries through the blood to different tissues in the body . In the tissues, when blood reaches tissues with lower oxygen levels, haemoglobin releases its oxygen. The oxygen is then picked up by myoglobin in muscle cells and turned into oxymyoglobin. 
• When the rate of respiration increases, there is an increased amount of carbon dioxide in the blood. This dissolves and forms carbonic acid. This causes the PH level of the blood to drop which then causes the haemoglobin in the blood to release more oxygen . Because of this, when exercising, the muscles are able to continue to work at the same rate.