T1DM +T2DM

• What is diabetes mellitus characterized by?

  Difficulty moving glucose into cells
• What happens to glucose levels in diabetes mellitus?

  High blood glucose and low cellular glucose
• Why do cells need glucose?

  As a source of energy
• What hormones control blood glucose levels?

  Insulin and glucagon
• What is the role of insulin?

  To reduce blood glucose levels
• What is the role of glucagon?

  To increase blood glucose levels
• Where are insulin and glucagon produced?

  In the pancreas' islets of Langerhans
• Which cells secrete insulin?

  Beta cells in the islets
• Which cells secrete glucagon?

  Alpha cells in the islets
• How does insulin help glucose enter cells?

  By binding to insulin receptors
• What happens when insulin receptors are activated?

  Vesicles with glucose transporters fuse with the membrane
• What does glucagon do to glucose levels?

  Raises blood glucose levels
• How does glucagon increase blood glucose?

  By generating glucose and breaking down glycogen
• What is the main difference between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes?

  The underlying mechanism causing high glucose levels
• What happens in Type 1 diabetes?

  The body doesn’t make enough insulin
• What immune response is involved in Type 1 diabetes?

  A type 4 hypersensitivity response
• What do T cells attack in Type 1 diabetes?

  The pancreas' beta cells
• What is self-tolerance in the immune system?

  Elimination of T cells that attack self-cells
• What genetic abnormality occurs in Type 1 diabetes?

  Loss of self-tolerance among T cells
• What is the role of the HLA system?

  Regulates the immune response
• What do HLA genes help the immune system do?

  Recognize foreign molecules
• What is a common feature among people with Type 1 diabetes?

  Specific HLA genes in common
• When does beta cell destruction usually start in Type 1 diabetes?

  Early in life
• What are the four clinical symptoms of uncontrolled diabetes?

  Polyphagia, glycosuria, polyuria, polydipsia
• What does polyphagia mean?

  Excessive hunger
• What causes glycosuria?

  High glucose spilling into urine
• What is polyuria?

  Increased urination
• What does polydipsia refer to?

  Excessive thirst
• What happens to adipose and muscle tissue in uncontrolled diabetes?

  They break down fat and proteins
• What is diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)?

  A serious complication of Type 1 diabetes
• What happens during lipolysis in DKA?

  Fat is broken down into glycerol free fatty acids
• What do the liver convert fatty acids into?

  Ketone bodies
• What is ketoacidosis?

  Increased acidity of the blood
• What is Kussmaul respiration?

  Deep and labored breathing
• What happens to potassium levels during DKA?

  Increased potassium outside cells
• What is a high anion gap in DKA?

  Difference in unmeasured ions in serum
• What can trigger DKA in diabetics?

  Stress like an infection
• What is a symptom of DKA related to breath?

  Sweet fruity smell of breath
• What are common symptoms of DKA?

  Nausea, vomiting, mental status changes
• What is the treatment for a DKA episode?

  Fluids, insulin, and electrolyte replacement