Superpowers

• The rise of BRICs


  • the global economy is rapidly changing and its likely a new economic order will have been created by 2050.
  • the BRICs include brazil, russia, india and china.
• Brazil strengths

  • resources- iron ore, timber, soya bean and beef.
  • cultural- hosting world cup and olympics in 2010s and landmarks eg. cristo rodentor- attracting tourists internationally.
  • economic- will become the world's 5th largest economy by 2050.
• Brazil weaknesses


  • political- experiences severe political polarisation and bipartisanship, affecting social cohesion and political stability.
  • military- the weakest military of the BRICs.
  • economic- infrastructure is inadequate and is the most unequal country in the world with severe poverty affecting almost 20% of the population, many of whom live in informal housing.
• Russia strengths


  • resources- world's most significant reserves of fossil fuelsm wuth potentially up to 25% of the world's natural gas still untapped in the russian arctic (influence over countries in energy deficit).
  • physical size- largest country on earth, bordering many powerful nations (economic and political power).
  • demographic- highly skilled and technical workforce (quaternary industry).
• Russia weaknesses


  • political- russo-ukraine war has led to the political isolation of russia- suspended from the G8 (now G7) and the human rights council.
  • military- despite having the greatest number of nuclear warheads of any nation, russia lacks modern technology reducing its effectiveness in its air force and navy.
  • economic- ageing population and economic sanctions by the EU, UK and US due to the war and is a highly unequal country so poverty is common (oligarchs).
• India strengths


  • demographic- became the world's populous country overtaking china in 2023 due to high birth rate, meaning they have a significant workforce (young, skilled and educated and english speaking).
  • economic- fastest annual GDP growth of any country in the world.
  • cultural- strong cultural exports eg. Bollywood and significant indian diaspora in many nations around the world eg. US and UK (cultural diffusion).
• India weaknesses


  • socio-economic- suffers from severe income inequality and more people living in poverty than most of the world combined.
  • environmental- suffered severe environmental degradation as a result of its economic development (coal-powered power stations) with pollution affecting both urban and rural areas.
• China strengths


  • economic- second largest economy in the world, economy built on manufacturing but is transitioning to a service-based economy supported by high-tech manufacturing industries.
  • military- largest standing army in the world, ability to exert significant hard power eg. air force and navy.
  • demographic- second most populous country with a highly educated population.
• China weaknesses


  • demographic- rapidly ageing population and plummeting birth rate (three-child policy, previously one-child).
  • socio-economic- severe inequality across the rural-urban divide.
  • environmental- china has had to make significant reforms to its economic agenda to counter and tackle widespread environmental degradation- led to severe water pollution, landscape scarring, air pollution and decline in biodiversity.
• Modernisation theory


  • advancing communism in the 1940s caused shockwaves in the USA.
  • wealth and capital from the USSR were flowing into india and south-east asia which the US feared would lead to the expansion of communist ideologies.
  • anti-communist propaganda and messaging dominated US foreign policy until the collapse of the soviet union in 1991.
  • the theory shows that modern institutional reform is central by delivering capitalism.
• Dependency theory


  • increases in the wealth of richer nations appeared to be at the expense of the poorer ones.
  • in its extreme form, dependency theory is based on a marxist view of the world, seeing capitalism in terms of the spread of market capitalism (exploitation of cheap labour and resources in return for the obsolete technologies of the west.
  • over time the core countries will exploit their dominance over an increasingly marginalised periphery.
• World systems theory


  • three tier model with the core, periphery and semi-periphery.
  • cycles of growth and stagnation with typify capitalist development allow some countries to shift between tiers, becoming more or less powerful, thereby leading to changing patterns of power over time.
• Techno-nationalism and the chip wars


  • US hegemony is questioned by the struggle for the semi-conductor industry.
  • China has accused of techno-nationalism (the stealing of technology) which has informed protectionist measures of the US.
• US-China trade war


  • began in 2018 when the US accused China of engaging in unfair trade practises.
  • the US claimed China was taking advantage of the global trading system (imposition of tariffs on hundreds of billions of dollars' worth of chinese goods).
  • china retaliated by imposing tariffs on US imports, escalating tension and affecting flow of trade between them.
  • this created a ripple effect, businesses in both countries facing higher costs, disrupted supply chains etc.
• Unilateral intervention: War on terror


  • conflict lasted 2 decades, costing US over $2 trillion and causing 240,000 deaths.
  • intervention by George Bush and Tony Blair in 2003 destabilised Iraq, causing the rise of ISIS by 2014 and 200,000 civilian deaths.
  • Afghanistan remains deeply unstable, and human rights, particulary for women are under severe threats.
• Multilateral intervention: Haiti earthquake (2010)


  • more than $13 billion in aid pledged by nations. US, Canada and UN sending troops, supplies and medical aids.
  • however, aid distribution hampered by logistical challenges and lack of infrastructure, much of aid either delayed or never delivered.
  • UN peacekeepers found to be responsible for a cholera outbreak, killing over 10,000 Haitians.
  • Haiti remains one of the poorest country in the Western hemisphere, gangs controlling parts of capital and political instability.
• Multilateral intervention: Bosnian war (1992-95)


  • UN attempted to mediate with peacekeepers, but hampered by limited mandate. The 1995 Srebrenica massacre killing over 8,000 muslim men and boys-was supposed to be a UN 'safe area'.
  • But, the UN eventually pushed for stronger NATO intervention and airstrikes against Bosnian Serb brought conflict to an end in December 1995.
• Multilateral intervention: Ebola outbreak (2014-16)


  • though the outbreak began in december 2013, it was not declared a public health emergency until august 2014.
  • US deployed 3,000 troops to Liberia to build treatment centres and UK similarly to Sierra Leone. However, international assistance did not arrive until much later.
  • by 2016 an experimental vaccine developed and was effective in preventing the spread of the virus.
• Military alliance: NATO


  • intervention in the Bosnian war in 1990s, NATO launching airstrikes to help end the fighting, but failed to prevent substantial casualties and events like the Srebrenica massacre.
  • effectively tackled piracy in the Horn of Africa through coordinated naval operations reducing piracy incidents and no major incidents have been recorded in the region since 2015.
• Economic alliance: European Union


  • operates as a single market, allowing for free movement of goods, services, people and capital between member states.
  • promoted democracy, human rights and stability across Europe.
  • one of the largest contributers to development aid and humanitarian assistance eg. key role in Paris Agreement.
  • however, internal divisions over migration policies, economic disparities and UK's decision to leave in 2020.
• Economic alliance: US-Mexico-Canada agreement (USMCA)


  • regulates trade between the nations, which form one of the largest trading blocs in the world.
  • promotes fair trade practices, protects intellectual property rights and enhances labour standards in all 3 countries.
  • trade between US and mexico alone reached over $600 billion.
  • however some argue it has not fully addressed issues like wage disparities and worker rights, particularly in mexico.
• Environmental alliance: Intergovernmental Panel on climate change (UN)


  • ensures importance of understanding and countering climate change has been spread globally eg. Paris agreement so that citizens, NGOs and governments are involved in management.
  • however, it gives recommendations rather than creating laws, national governments choose whether to follow these rules often based on their economic and developmental circumstances.
• United Nations Security council


  • critical role in addressing threats to international stability and an ability to mobilise international responses to crises and its authority to make binding decisions for UN member states.
  • eg. UNSC's response to 1991 Gulf war when Iraq invaded Kuwait.
  • faced challenges achieving consensus between all member states and frequent use of vetoes hampers decisive action eg. Syrian civil war when russia and china vetoed a resolution condemning the violence against the protesters.
• Paris agreement (2015)


  • 195 countries:
  • to peak greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible.
  • to keep global temperature below 2 degrees celsius.
  • to review progress every 5 years.
  • US$100 billion a year to support climate change initiatives in developing countries by 2020.
• Contested spheres of influence: Arctic oil and gas


  • holds around 13% of the world's untapped oil and 30% of its undiscovered natural gas.
  • causing disagreements between countries (Denmark, Norway, Canada, US, Russia and EU) of who has controls over which parts due to wanting economic and political power.
  • as the arctic sea ice recedes, more countries have access routes to start drilling sites causing more tension.
• Contested spheres of influence: Intellectual property rights


  • significant tensions continue to arise when brands, patents and trademarks are copied or faked and IP rights are violated.
  • ongoing IP infringements lead to reduced profits for businesses operating in regions where IP protections are weak.
  • eg. US-China trade war (2019-present).
  • IP theft and counterfeiting result in staggering financial losses worldwide, the global economy loses more than $1 trillion annually due to IP violations.
  • countries like China have begun strengthening their IP laws and enforcement mechanisms in response.
• Contested spheres of influence: South and East China Sea


  • East china sea is rich in oil and gas, causing China and Japan to compete (terrotorial disputes), as well as USA, Taiwan and South Korea competing.
  • South china sea is also rich in natural resources such as oil, natural gas and fisheries causes terrotorial disputes between Taiwan and China. US, Malaysia, Philippines and Brunei are also involved.
  • The US is involved due to risk of growing clashes involving military presence in the area as US has security commitments to Japan.
• Contested spheres of influence: Russia's Western Border


  • Annexation of Crimea- deepened geopolitical divides, especially with Ukraine seeking closer ties to Europe and NATO and gives Russia control over black sea.
  • NATO expansion- Baltic states joining in 2004 causing aggression from russia and the accession of finland and sweden extends NATOs presence along the russian frontier- more conflict
  • Kaliningrad Oblast- exacerbating any escalation.
  • Russo-Ukraine war
• China in Africa


  • economic- 6000km of railway in Africa (Tazara railway), access to resources from Africa such as fossil fuels, metals for modern tech.
  • cultural- startimes satellite (china chooses whats shown on tv in african countries), Huawei phone manufacturing to 'spy' on african governments.
  • political- african loyalty through debt of loans to china (debt trap diplomacy).
  • military- overseas military base in africa and selling military equiptment to sub-saharan countries.
• The Middle East


  • resources/economic- fossil fuels (oil)
  • environmental- water insecurity worsening relationships eg. TIGRIS, turkey, syria, iraq. Maritime chokepoints making security of trade challenging to manage eg. suez canal.
  • religious divides- inter-islamic rivalry and conflict (sunni and shima) creating fundamentalist beliefs that do not align
  • history- colonial legacy of creation of geometric boundaries, demographic- young, male, mobile and clash between westernisation and religious politics.
• The Arab spring


  • wave of pro-democracy protests by citizens in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Syria and Yemen.
  • their demands were for political reform, freedom and social justice.
  • high unemployment rates among young people and rising food prices created widespread dissatisfaction as well as corruption and lack of accountability in governments.
  • twitter catalysed a broader movement for change.