cellular respiration

• What are the main constituents of mitochondria?

  Membranes, mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, enzymes

  
• What is the function of the outer membrane of mitochondria?

  It surrounds the mitochondrion and is permeable
• What is the intermembrane space in mitochondria?

  Space between the outer and inner membranes

  
• What is the role of the inner membrane of mitochondria?

  It is involved in electron transport and ATP synthesis

  
• What is mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)?

  A circular DNA molecule encoding mitochondrial proteins
• What is the function of ribosomes in mitochondria?

  For protein synthesis within the mitochondrion
• What metabolic processes involve enzymes found in mitochondria?

  Krebs cycle and fatty acid oxidation
• What is the outer membrane of chloroplasts like?

  A smooth outer boundary
• What does the inner membrane of chloroplasts enclose?

  The stroma and thylakoid membranes

  
• What is the stroma in chloroplasts?

  A fluid-filled space containing enzymes

  
• What are thylakoids in chloroplasts?

  A system of interconnected flattened sacs
• What are grana in chloroplasts?

  Stacks of thylakoids

  
• What is ATP often referred to as?

  The universal energy credit
• Why do phosphate groups in ATP repel each other?

  They have high negative charge
• What type of reaction synthesizes ATP?

  A condensation reaction between ADP and Pi
• What enzyme catalyzes the phosphorylation of ADP?

  ATP synthase

  
• What type of process is ATP synthesis?

  Endergonic, requiring energy input
• How is ATP broken down?

  Via a hydrolysis reaction
• What is the result of ATP breakdown?

  It releases instant energy
• What is GTP's role in cellular processes?

  Acts as an energy source and regulator
• How do ATP and GTP differ in their roles?

  ATP is primary energy currency; GTP is specialized
• What is NADH's role in cells?

  Acts as an essential electron carrier
• How many ATP molecules can NADH produce?

  Up to three ATP molecules
• What happens to NAD+ during cellular respiration?

  It accepts electrons and becomes NADH

  
• What is the role of NADH in the electron transport chain?

  It carries high-energy electrons to the chain

  
• What is FADH2's role in cellular respiration?

  It is an essential electron carrier
• How many ATP molecules can FADH2 produce?

  Up to two ATP molecules
• What does FAD do during the Krebs cycle?

  It accepts two electrons and two protons
• How does FADH2 contribute to ATP generation?

  Through oxidative phosphorylation in the electron transport chain

  
• What are the sources of glucose in the body?

  Diet, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis
• What is glycogenolysis?

  The breakdown of glycogen into glucose

  
• How can proteins contribute to glucose production?

  By being converted into glucose via gluconeogenesis
• What is glycerol conversion in glucose production?

  Glycerol can be converted into glucose
• How do fatty acids contribute to glucose synthesis?

  Some acetyl-CoA can synthesize glucose
• How does glucose enter cells?

  Through facilitated diffusion or cotransport
• What is the role of GLUT transporters?

  Facilitate glucose transport across cell membranes
• How does insulin affect GLUT4 transporters?

  Stimulates their translocation to the cell surface
• What is the Na+ independent facilitated diffusion transport system?

  A system of glucose transporters in cell membranes
• What is the Na+ monosaccharide cotransport system?

  An energy-requiring process transporting glucose against a gradient
• What is glycolysis?

  A sequence transforming glucose to lactate and pyruvate