Observations

• Observations= " the action or process of monitoring or studying something or someone."
• types of observations

  • Overt
  • The subjects are aware of the researcher.
  • Covert
  • The subjects are not aware of the researcher.
  • Participant.
  • The researcher actively takes part in the activities of the subject of study.
  • Non-participant
  • The researcher is no more than an observer who documents the events as they happen.
• Observation-based research can be:

  • Overt
  • Non-participant overt
  • Participant covert
  • Non-participant covert
• Non-participant observations

  • Advantages:
  • objective.
  • Reliable.
  • Open documentation of data.
  • notes/recordings can be made on the spot, rather than relying on memory
• non-participant observations

  • Disadvantages
  • Unethical
  • Actions are open to researcher interpretation
  • A lack of relationship between researcher and subject means valuable data could be missed.
• Participant observation

  • Advantages
  • High in validity.
  • Observing people's behaviour is an accurate way to obtain highly valid qualitative data.
  • Provides insight.
  • Understanding of the subject of study can be achieved through observation; compassion, empathy.
• Participant observations

  • Disadvantages
  • Practical disadvantages
  • Time and money.
  • A trained researcher is needed to conduct to the study.
  • Good interpersonal and observation skills are required.
  • Potentially stressful or demanding.
  • Gender, social class, age, ethnically and other factors may playa role in access to particular subjects of study.
• Participant observations

  • Disadvantages
  • Ethical disadvantages
  • The activities of the subjects of study may be illegal or immoral.
  • Unrepresentative
  • The subjects of study are usually small groups who are not always representative of the sample frame.
  • Unreliable
  • The observations cannot be repeated; a different researcher would build a different relationship with the subjects of study and the results may vary- Qualitative data.
• Participant observation

  • Disadvantages
  • Lack of validity.
  • Qualitative data.
  • The observations are subject to researcher interpretation.
  • The Hawthorne Effect
• Participant observation

  There are issues to overcome with a participant observation study which do not occur with non-participant observation.

  • Getting in.
  • Staying in.
  • Getting out.
• Getting in

  you need to access to the subject group before you can study it

  • How can you achieve this?
  • Is it practical to achieve this?
  • Making contact and achieving success may depend on the skills of the researcher, having access to connecting or even pure chance.
• Staying in

  • Once accepted the researcher must ensure they do not engage in any actions which may compromise their position and lead to the end of their study.
  • Having to remain involved in the subjects of study enough to understand them, and remain objective as an observer is a delicate balance.
  • Over-involvement is a risk;
• Getting out

  • Leaving the study can be problematic.
  • The researcher may have become over-involved and have a hard time leaving; loyalty and membership.
  • The researcher may take ethical or moral objections to what is being observed and end the study early.
  • The subjects of study may be resistant to the researcher is leaving; fear of reprisal, loyalty to the researcher.
  • Re-entering their normal life can be a difficult adjustment for the researcher, depending on the subject of study.
• Overt observation

  Advantages

  • Avoids ethical issues as the subjects of study are fully informed and have given their consent.
  • Allows the researcher to ask immediate and direct questions at the moment an observation has been made.
  • Open collection of data.
  • Other methods of data collection can be used to further understand the subjects of study.
  • Interviews.
  • Questionnaires.
• Overt observation

  Disadvantages

  • The Hawthorne Effect
  • The presence of the researcher affects the behaviour of the subjects of study.
  • The subjects of study do not consent to be observed.
• Covert observation

  Advantages

  • Eliminates the Hawthorne Effect
  • Allows the collection of highly valid qualitative data.
  • Gaining access to subjects of study may be less difficult as there is no need to seek permission.
• Covert observation

  Disadvantages

  • High risk.
  • The researcher's true purpose and identity may be revealed.
  • Withdrawn consent.
  • End of the study.
  • Potential harm to the researcher.
• Covert observation

  Disadvantages

  • Recordings of data can be problematic; potential reliance on memory, which further leads to validity issues.
  • The researcher is unable to ask questions openly, as they may come across as naïve, inexperienced, and potentially reveal their identity and purpose.
  • Highly stressful.
• Covert observation

  Ethical issues

  • The subjects of study cannot consent.
  • The subjects of study may engage in illegal and/or immoral activities.
  • The researcher will also have to take part in these activities if they do not want to risk others questioning their objections.
  • The researcher may have a duty to report these activities.
• Covert methods produce more valid data, but are more unethical.
• Overt methods are more ethical and produce valid data, according to interpretivists, but structuralists argue they lack reliability and representativeness.
• Structuralists prefer quantitative data collection from an overt, non- participant position.