observation

• What is the definition of an observation in research methods?

  Researchers watching and recording behaviour as it happens
• What is the main difference between a controlled and naturalistic observation?

  Controlled observations are in a lab, naturalistic in a natural environment
• What is a key advantage of controlled observations?

  Reduces effects of extraneous variables
• Why might controlled observations lack ecological validity?

  Environment is artificial and not natural
• What is a key advantage of naturalistic observations?

  High realism and ecological validity
• What is a weakness of naturalistic observations?

  Lack of control over extraneous variables
• What is an overt observation?

  Participants know they are being observed
• What is a weakness of overt observations?

  Participants may change their behaviour
• What is a covert observation?

  Participants are unaware they are being observed
• What is a weakness of covert observations?

  Lack of informed consent, making it unethical
• What is a participant observation?

  Researcher becomes involved in the group being studied
• What is a key advantage of participant observations?

  Researcher gains first-hand knowledge of the participants' situation
• What is a weakness of participant observations?

  Researcher may lose objectivity and become biased
• What is a non-participant observation?

  Researcher observes from a distance without involvement
• What is a key advantage of non-participant observations?

  Researcher maintains high objectivity
• What is a weakness of non-participant observations?

  Researcher may miss important findings due to distance
• What does it mean to operationalise a variable?

  Clearly defining a variable for objective measurement
• Why is operationalising behavioural categories important?

  Ensures clear and objective measurement of behaviour
• What is time sampling in observational research?

  Recording behaviour at set intervals over time
• What is a weakness of time sampling?

  May miss important behaviour outside recording periods
• What is event sampling in observational research?

  Recording all instances of specific behaviours
• What is a weakness of event sampling?

  May miss relevant behaviour not on the list
• What is inter-rater reliability?

  Agreement between two researchers observing the same behaviour
• How is inter-rater reliability tested?

  Using a correlation test like Spearman’s rho
• What correlation value is typically considered reliable in inter-rater reliability?

  0.8
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of controlled observations?

  Strengths:

  • Reduces effects of extraneous variables
  • High internal validity
  • Repeatable and reliable results

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • Artificial environment
  • May lack ecological validity
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observations?

  Strengths:

  • High realism and ecological validity
  • Participants behave naturally

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • Lack of control over extraneous variables
  • May be difficult to replicate
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of overt observations?

  Strengths:

  • Ethical as participants give informed consent

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • Participants may change their behaviour (demand characteristics)
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of covert observations?

  Strengths:

  • Participants behave naturally
  • High validity

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • Unethical due to lack of informed consent
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of participant observations?

  Strengths:

  • First-hand knowledge of participants' situation
  • Builds rapport with participants

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • Risk of losing objectivity
  • Potential for researcher bias
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of non-participant observations?

  Strengths:

  • High objectivity
  • Less risk of bias

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • May miss important findings due to distance
  • Less rapport with participants
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of time sampling?

  Strengths:

  • Easier to manage in large groups
  • Systematic approach to recording behaviour

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • May miss important behaviour outside recording periods
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of event sampling?

  Strengths:

  • Records all instances of specific behaviours
  • Useful for rare behaviours

  
  

  Weaknesses:

  • May miss relevant behaviour not on the list
  • Requires more observers
• What is the process of testing inter-rater reliability?

  1. Two researchers observe the same behaviour
  2. Use the same operationalised behavioural categories
  3. Conduct a correlation test (e.g., Spearman’s rho)
  4. Compare data sets for similarity
  5. A correlation of 0.8 or higher indicates reliability
• Which researchers are associated with controlled observations?

  Milgram, Bandura, and Ainsworth
• What are demand characteristics in observational research?

  Participants change behaviour due to awareness of being observed
• What is one of the ethical guidelines in research involving observations?

  Participants must give informed consent
• How is a frequency chart used in observational research?

  To record and count instances of specific behaviours
• What is Spearman’s rho used for in observational research?

  To test the strength of the relationship between two sets of data