Prospective Memory

• Declarative memory =

  • Mostly explicit  
  • Episodic (EVENTS)  
  • Semantic (FACTS) 
• Non declarative (not conscientiously aware of)  

  • Mostly implicit  
  • Priming (UNCONSIOUS)
  • procedural (SKILLS)
• Mental time travel (tulvig, 2005)  

  • Remembering the past  
  • Remembering the present  
  • Prospective memory  
  • Mind wandering  
  • Episodic future thinking
• Retrospective memory = remembering information acquired in the past 
• Prospective memory - Remembering to perform previously intended action at some point in the future. (Remembering to pass a message to a friend)
• Types of PM tasks (3)  

  • Event-based PM  
  • Person, place, object  
  • Time-based PM  
  • A particular time or after certain amount of elapsed time 
  • Activity-based PM  
  • Before or after a particular activity 
• Main characteristics of PM tasks (4)  

  • (1) Remembered information is minimal 
  • (2) Once an intention is formed there is no necessity to think about it "obsessively". 
  • (3) The absence of explicit external prompts - Self-cued, self-initiating aspect of PM 
  • (4) (Task interruption) Often, remembering intention requires that the ongoing task is interrupted 
• Methods of studying PM 

  • (1) Naturalistic studies - outside the lab 
  • Studies in which participants are asked to do something in the course of their everyday life - send a postcard or give a call to an experimenter, etc. 
  • (2) laboratory paradigm of PM Einstein and McDaniel (1990)  
• Important research questions in PM 

  • (1) Mechanisms of PM: What brings an intention to one's mind at the right time? 
  • Behavioural experiments 
  • Neuroscientific experiments 
  • (2) Factors that influence PM performance (practical implications) 
  • age
  • type of intentions
  • motivation
  • effects of reminders
  • time delays
• Effects of Age on RM 

  • RM deteriorates with age. 
  • Free recall, cued recall, recognition and serial recall words, sentences, prose passages (Cohen, 1989) 
• Effects of Age on PM 

  • Craik’s (1986) theory of memory and ageing 
  • Performance depends on 2 variables: 
  • How much environmental support you get from external  
  • How much self-initiated activity you have to carry out yourself if no external support 
• Older adults outperformed young in naturalistic task (PM)
• PM and ageing paradox

  • OLD ADULTS BETTER THAN YOUNG AS THEY USE STRATEGIES MORE FREQUENTLY E.G. CALENDAR  
  • External cues  
  • Motivation  
  • Lifestyle  
• What are the two main types of memory discussed?

  Short-term memory and long-term memory
• What are the distinctions within long-term memory?

  • Non-declarative
  • Declarative
  • Episodic
  • Semantic
• What is the concept of explicit long-term memory?

  Mental Time Travel (Tulving, 2005)
• What is prospective memory?

  Remembering to perform intended actions in the future
• What are the types of prospective memory tasks?

  Event-based, time-based, and activity-based
• What are the basic characteristics of prospective memory tasks?

  • Minimal remembered information
  • Absence of explicit external prompts
  • Often requires task interruption
  • No need to obsessively think about intention
• Who proposed the theory of memory and aging in 1986?

  Craik
• What is retrospective memory?

  Remembering information acquired in the past
• What is the major characteristic of retrospective memory?

  Existence of direct prompts for retrieval
• What is the main puzzle for prospective memory researchers?

  What brings the intention to mind at the right moment?
• What are the reasons for neglecting prospective memory research?

  1. Focus on other theoretical interests
  2. Assumption that PM is indistinguishable from RM
  3. Difficulties in experimental investigation
• What are the experimental methods of studying prospective memory?

  1. Naturalistic studies
  2. Laboratory paradigms
• What is the laboratory paradigm of prospective memory?

  Instructions with a cover task and PM delay
• What factors influence prospective memory performance?

  Age, type of intentions, motivation, reminders
• How does age affect retrospective memory?

  RM deteriorates with age
• What tasks show decline in retrospective memory with age?

  Free recall, cued recall, recognition
• At what age does decline in retrospective memory typically start?

  Usually from the 60s
• What is Craik's (1986) prediction regarding prospective memory and aging?

  PM is an exception to age-related decrements
• What did Henry et al. (2004) find regarding age effects on memory tasks?

  Older adults outperformed young in naturalistic tasks
• What is the PM and aging paradox?

  • Negative age effects in lab tasks
  • No age effects or older better in naturalistic tasks
• What did Rendell & Thompson (1999) confirm regarding the PM and aging paradox?

  Used within-subject design to confirm findings
• What was the key variable in Rendell et al. (2007) study regarding PM?

  Difficulty of ongoing activity
• What are the conclusions regarding age effects on PM and RM?

  1. Young often better than old in lab
  2. Older adults may outperform young in everyday life
• What is mind-wandering?

  • Discussion and definitions
  • Individual differences
  • Underlying brain mechanisms
  • Effects of triggers
  • Benefits and costs