Internal factors

• What are the main internal causes of working-class underachievement?

  labelling, self-fulfilling prophecy, streaming and pupil subcultures
• What is a subculture?

  a group whose beliefs, values and attitudes differ to some extent from the culture of wider society
• What are pro-school subcultures?

  they are usually formed by pupils in higher streams. they accept the school's values and goals of hard work, regular attendance, respect for teachers. they enjoy school and participate enthusiastically in it's activities
• What are anti-school subcultures?

  they are often formed by lower streams. they reject the school's values and often purposely invert them. they dislike school, flout it's rules, disrespect teachers, avoid both schoolwork and homework, play truant and sabotage their uniform
• Why does Lacy argue that lower-stream pupils form anti-school subcultures?

  school deprives them of status by labelling them as failures. they therefore create their own status hierarchy and gain status by rejecting the school's policies and rules
• How do pupil subcultures lead to self-fulfilling prophecy?

  members of pro-school subcultures work hard and are successful, whereas anti-school subcultures mess about, don't try and fail
• What does it mean to label something in education?

  To attach a meaning or definition to them
• How do teachers often label pupils?

  As clever, stupid, good, or naughty
• What do studies show about teacher labeling?

  Labels are often assigned based on first impressions
• Which group of pupils is often labeled as stupid and naughty?

  Working-class pupils
• Who conducted a study on teacher labeling in 1971?

  Howard Becker
• What did Howard Becker find about teachers' judgments?

  They judge pupils based on the ideal pupil image
• How did Amelia Hempel-Jorgensen's study differ based on student demographics?

  Ideal pupil definitions varied by class composition
• What characteristics did teachers value in working-class schools?

  Quiet, passive, and obedient students
• What characteristics did teachers value in middle-class schools?

  Academically gifted and good personality
• What did Dunne and Gazeley argue about teacher labels?

  Labels lead to pupil underachievement
• Why did teachers label working-class students as likely to fail?

  They believed parents were uninterested in education
• How did Ray Rist's study illustrate teacher labeling?

  Teachers grouped students based on background and appearance
• What labels did Rist assign to different groups of students?

  Tigers for clever students, clowns for others
• How did the seating arrangement differ for tigers and clowns?

  Tigers sat at the front, clowns at the back
• What is a self-fulfilling prophecy in education?

  A prediction that comes true due to belief
• How do interactionalists view the impact of labeling on achievement?

  It creates a self-fulfilling prophecy
• What did Rosenthal and Jacobson's study demonstrate?

  Teachers' beliefs can influence student performance
• What was the false claim made by Rosenthal and Jacobson?

  That a test could predict student success
• What percentage of 'spurters' improved in Rosenthal and Jacobson's study?

  47%
• What does the self-fulfilling prophecy illustrate about beliefs?

  Beliefs can have real effects on outcomes
• How can self-fulfilling prophecies be negative?

  Teachers may underestimate lower-class students
• What does streaming involve in education?

  Dividing students based on academic ability
• How can being placed in a lower stream affect students?

  It can trigger a self-fulfilling prophecy
• What did Douglas find about students in lower streams?

  They suffered a decline in IQ scores
• Why are middle-class pupils placed in higher streams?

  They are viewed as the ideal pupil
• What did Douglas find about students in higher streams?

  They improved their IQ scores
• What did Gillborn and Youdell's study reveal about teacher assumptions?

  They often place lower-class students in lower streams
• How are schools ranked in league tables?

  Based on students achieving grades A*-C
• Why do teachers focus on students likely to succeed?

  To improve school rankings and funding
• How can focusing on high-achieving students affect others?

  It can lower self-confidence of less intelligent students
• Basil Berstein (1975)


  he distinguished between elaborated and restricted code
• Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams (1986)


  they argue that the problem is not the child's language, but instead the teacher's attitude towards this
• Mairead Dunne and Louise Gazeley (2008)


  argues that labelling is a key factor contributing to underachievement
• Ray Rist (1970)


  conducted a study that found that teachers use a pupil's background information to separate them into groups.