Religious experience

• religious experiences

  -William James defined religion as a personal experience: 'the feelings, acts & experiences of individual men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to whatever they may consider the divine' ('The Varieties of Religious Experience')

  -for James, primary experience of the divine was at the heart of religion and came before 'second-hand religious life' (eg. rituals or theology)
• mystical experience

  An experience of something beyond normal awareness, sometimes described as super-sense or sub-sense.
• common core

  -James' overview of religious experiences led him to suggest mystical experiences have a common core:

  --> passive - people feeling they were not in control of the experience & as if another power was acting on them

  --> ineffable - the experience was difficult to put into words

  --> noetic - the experience provided insight or knowledge grasped through intuition. This can be called 'revelation'

  --> transient - the experience lasted a short time (perhaps a few minutes or less than 30 minutes) but had a much more significant effect on the person, often life-long
• mystical experiences basics

  -James argued that the roots of religious experiences could be found in these common features of mystical experiences

  --> also emphasised the importance of the effects or 'fruits' of religious experience

  -mystical experiences are varied and can include visions

  -Christian mystics such as Julian of Norwich (C14th-15th) & Teresa of Avila (C16th) recorded their own striking visions of Jesus
• mystical experiences examples

  -Julian wrote 'Revelations of Divine Love' after a series of visions when she was close to death (although she recovered)

  --> saw a vision of Christ bleeding in front of her but experienced an overwhelming sense of God's unconditional love. Unusually for her time, she used language of love and motherhood to describe Jesus

  -Teresa of Avila checked her visions with her own spiritual adviser because they were so unusual

  --> 1 of her most famous visions was of a spear, its golden tip on fire, piercing her side & leaving her with an immense feeling of elation & love
• mystical experiences analysis

  -both Teresa and Julian struggled to explain their feelings & experiences (ineffable), although they were able to reflect on them in later writings

  -the religious experiences were passive & gave them new insights into their faith (noetic) as well as being short-lived but with lasting impact (transient)
• William James quotes

  -"The only thing that it unequivocally testifies to is that we can experience union with something larger than ourselves and in that union find our greatest peace"

  -"One may say truly, I think, that personal religious experience has its roots and centre in mystical states of consciousness" ('The Varieties of Religious Experience')
• problem with features

  -James argues although there are psychological elements to religious experience, similarities (passive, transient, noetic & ineffable) could point to a common source, the divine

  -mystical experiences are reliable as they have similar features, many having all 4 of the core that James identified

  --> BUT mystical experiences could be all in the mind - the common features are evident because they originate in the psyche, or human mind, which reacts in much the same way each time. Although those involved may be convinced & sincere, they could be sincerely wrong
• problem with passivity

  -since many mystical experiences are passive, not desired or expected, it suggests that there is something external that acts on & encounters someone in a personal way

  --> BUT passivity could be the unconscious mind deluding the conscious self. Participants in Pinker's God Helmet experiment had feelings of something beyond themselves, but this was the product of electromagnetic fields in the helmet, not of God (2 as could be external)
• problem with knowledge

  -the noetic effect of mystical experiences could indicate the presence of the divine because it is difficult to explain gaining new knowledge or insight

  --> BUT psychologists continue to study the mind & have made some progress in how the brain works, but they don't understand it completely. Neurology may one day explain it (4 as assumption)
• problem with ineffability

  -since mystical experiences are ineffable, it shows they're unlike any other normal experience

  --> BUT ineffability shows how unreliable mystical experiences are as they are difficult to describe. This could be a lack of suitable language to describe them rather than an indication of similarity (3 as doesn't explain lack of language)
• problem with transience

  -transiency shows the reliability of mystical experiences as they last only a short time but have a large impact on the person, often life-long

  -to have such impact shows the importance of the experience, & the effects are observable e.g. the person could be more compassionate or charitable

  --> BUT change in perspective & character could be due to several factors or non-religious influences e.g. it's possible for a novel or film to have a similar impact (1 as could be down to other reasons)
• problem with empiricism

  -German philosopher F. Schleiermacher argues there is more to our existence than the physical & if we stop to reflect, we encounter something other

  -this deep-seated sense of the divine is also argued by Calvin (sensus divinitatis)

  --> BUT unconscious, irrational & subjective experience can't be empirically tested or fully understood by another person
• religious experience vs institutions of religion

  In my opinion, if someone has a mystical experience, that will be greater than any institution of religion. However, for the vast majority that do not, churches etc. still bring believers closer to God. It could even be argued that religious institutions are more important, as teach people how to live as God would have wanted.
• line of reasoning

  Mystical experiences are not effective. Experiments such as Pinker's God Helmet show how easy the mind can be deceived, which is proof that mystical experiences are unreliable. A change in character as a result of 'transiency' could just be due to emotion, and all of the noetic, passive, transience and ineffable effects of 'mystical experiences' can be explained through non-religious things.
• are conversions the most convincing religious experiences?

  -James argues conversions are perhaps the strongest evidence for the divine because of their observable effects, as often life-changing

  -James' studies were based on pragmatism & empiricism

  -story of Paul in the Bible is an example of this

  --> on way to Damascus to persecute Christians, Paul saw Jesus in a vision. He converted to Christianity & became an influential missionary, turning it into a religion that spread throughout the Roman Empire. Paul described the experience as having been 're-born'
• psychological process

  -James describes the psychological process of conversion

  -inner self is aware of being divided & unhappy but during conversion to religion becomes unified & happy

  -religious ideals & morals, that previously weren't given much thought, become central to personal habits & consciousness

  -example of S. Hadley, who described himself as 'a homeless, friendless, dying drunkard'

  --> considered suicide, yet had a conversion experience & never wanted another strong alcoholic drink again. The sick soul had been met, helped & unified, given a new sense of purpose & morality
• classification

  -James uses research from his contemporary, psychologist, E.D. Starbuck, ('The Psychology of Religion', 1899), to support his classification of conversion experiences

  -Starbuck described two types of conversions:

  --> volitional - gradual change and slow development of new moral and spiritual habits

  --> self-surrender - a sudden, pivotal or crisis experience (physical & emotional) followed by change; the subject ceases struggling against and surrenders to the new psychological centre
• Starbuck

  -Starbuck suggested that conversion was 'a normal adolescent phenomenon' as it mainly occurred in 15-24 year olds

  -the search for identity & purpose, seen in adolescent struggles, resulted in either a religious conversion experience or a sense of calm and identity that is psychological rather than divine
• conversion experience

  A change of heart and turning around of one's priorities, following a new direction in life.
• pragmatism

  The effects on & value to the individual; used by James to emphasise the importance of the effects of a religious experience because they show it holds value for the individual.
• empiricism

  Using observation and evidence.
• William James quote

  -"To be converted ... the process, gradual or sudden, by which a self hitherto divided, and consciously wrong inferior and unhappy, becomes unified and consciously right superior and happy, in consequence of its firmer hold upon religious realities"

  --> 'The Varieties of Religious Experience'
• James's 'fruits'

  -James described several 'fruits' of a conversion experience that showed its impact and longevity, including:

  --> a conviction of something beyond the material world

  --> an immense feeling of elation & freedom

  --> a feeling of having met a friendly power & responding by self-surrender

  --> a change in the emphasis of life - more spiritual, charitable, morally aware & with sense of awe and wonder at the universe

  -although James allowed for psychological effect, he concluded that since converts found their greatest peace, it may point towards the divine
• psychological weakness

  -James uses pragmatism to argue conversions give insight into private experiences

  -for him, means practical consequences that have an impact on future lifestyle & choices

  -psychological factors could be involved, but concluded effects could indicate divine interaction

  --> BUT Starbuck concluded psychological effects of conversion experiences are a normal adolescent phenomenon since most happen between 15 & 24 years old. The sense of being lost, depressed & divided before a conversion experience is similar to the struggles through adolescence to personal identity
• Freud weakness

  -James also used Teresa of Avila's criteria to determine a genuine conversion - it should fit in with the teaching and traditions of the church and should lead to positive changes in a person's character

  --> BUT Freud would disagree with James' use of St Teresa's criteria as he argued that the church was the cause of much psychological & subconscious guilt, repressed in the super-ego, which resurfaced in repetitive rituals, such as prayer. James could point to such changes as the effects of transformation within, but for Freud, it is a psychological phenomenon
• uniqueness weakness

  -James acknowledged that a conversion experience gave the most significant observable evidence in terms of what he called 'fruits'

  -this included a change in the emphasis of life, e.g. converts to religion often show changes in morality or become more charitable

  --> BUT lasting impacts on a person's character are not unique to religious experience. Such change could also be attributed to the influence of a significant person, or even the result of engagement with a novel or film
• Kant weakness

  -James would disagree with Kant to an extent

  -while it may be true that we can never be certain of the metaphysical, it is possible to observe effects, both psychological & in change of habits or lifestyle, that may indicate there is something more

  --> BUT Kant argues that it is logically impossible to experience God or a noumenal reality since we are rooted in the phenomenal world of the senses
• are religious experiences evidence of union with a higher power?

  -James' conclusions about religious experiences are based on pragmatism (the effects on and value to the individual), empiricism (using observation and evidence) and pluralism (there is truth in all religions and ways of life)

  -James argued no philosophical argument, particularly using logic & reason, is sufficient to answer questions about the existence of God

  -instead, he started from a study of the effects on those who lived a religious life & then considered its implications for philosophy
• pluralism

  All religions are valuable and hold truth.
• religious experience

  -James suggests evidence of how a Christian/Buddhist role model live their lives is similar

  -religious experiences subjective so teachings developed after experiences cause the differences between religions (pragmatism & empiricism)

  -James' pluralism seen through vague & generalised phrases he used to describe r.e.'s

  --> inclusive & accounts for similarity of all human, psychological experiences

  -described religious life as a belief in an unseen order within the universe, which requires us to adjust our ways of thinking in order to feel whole & fulfilled
• James

  -describes religious experiences as psychological phenomena which have enormous subjective meaning

  -considers question of objective truth - is there an objective, divine force (or God) behind religious experiences?

  --> answers by arguing there is nothing in religious experiences that unequivocally supports belief in God or an infinite divine reality

  -James concludes the divine couldn't be ruled out

  -argues there must exist a larger power, beyond our conscious self

  -r.e's point towards possibility of a union with this 'something larger' which allows us to find supreme comfort
• James weakness

  -accused of being too vague in his conclusions about religious experiences

  -he wants to support the importance that religious experiences have for the individuals involved but also recognises psychological factors

  -whether his attempts to combine philosophy and psychology are successful is open to debate
• rationalists weakness

  -James' use of pragmatism & empiricism is useful

  --> collected a vast amount of info about r.e's & compared them

  -common core & fruits seen after these experiences are probably the best evidence we can have of God

  --> BUT as rationalists would argue, use of senses & observation can deceive us. Accounts collected by James include those who use drugs to alter their state of consciousness (difficult to trust). Starbuck claims conversions are normal adolescent phenomena so don't point to God - they have a psychological rather than supernatural explanation
• interpretation weakness

  -religious experiences are of an ultimate reality or God but are interpreted & spoken about using the language & perceptions from our personality, culture & upbringing

  --> not surprising experiences are expressed in different ways but that there are common features and effects

  --> BUT differences in interpretation, depending on faith or culture, could discredit religious experiences. As Hume noted, Catholics experience Mary, Hindus experience Krishna. Therefore, it seems unlikely that one divine source causes religious experiences
• evidence weakness

  -Caroline Franks Davis ('The Evidential Force of Religious Experience', 1989) uses a cumulative argument to suggest that along with other arguments for the existence of God, evidence from religious experience may just tip the balance in favour of there being a God

  --> BUT A. Flew criticises using religious experience to add to the cumulative evidence for God. He says that if one leaky bucket will not hold water, there is no reason to think that ten can. All arguments for the existence of God have faults, simply adding them together does not make one better argument
• Davis challenges to religious experience

  -description: misremembering, exaggerating, etc.

  -subject: unreliability, impairment or moral vulnerability of subject of r. e.'s & identify determining factors such as physiological states e.g. intoxication & psychological states e.g. hypnosis

  -object: centre on implausibility of object of experience existing. Divine & God aren't only conclusions that could be drawn & conclusions can be reduced to psychological factors (e.g. sexual repression), sociological influences (projection of society) or anthropological needs (access social/political power)
• Davis responses

  -description: a r. e. can't provide linguistic precision as it is describing something beyond normal experience; those with highly interpreted experiences are often willing to discuss them more objectively

  -subject: it's an assumption, and a tenuous logical step, to argue that just because psychological & physiological factors of the individual may be impaired means that the experience is therefore unreliable

  object: many religious experiences do not claim be the only authority, but rather serve as cumulative evidence as part of a wider argument
• mystical experiences W. T. Stace


  -extrovertive: the plurality of objects in the world are transfigured into a single living entity

  -introvertive: a loss of identity as a separate individual occurs, and one merges into the divine reality
• mystical experiences R. C. Zaehner 


  -theistic mysticism: awareness of God in a living relationship

  -monistic mysticism: awareness of the soul, self or consciousness