observations

• Naturalistic observation

  Watch + record behaviour in the setting it normally occurs.
• Ads + Disads : naturalistic

  ads

  • high external validity
  • generalised easily

  disads

  • hard to replicate -> lack of control over situation
  • confounding/extraneous variab;es
• Controlled observation

  Watch + record behaviour within a structured environment. Variables are managed
• Ads + Disads : controlled

  ads:

  • confounding/extraneous variables are less likely to occur.
  • easy replication

  disads

  • lower external validity -> less applicable to everyday life.
• Covert observation

  Watch + record behaviour without participant's knowledge or consent.
• Ads + Disads : covert

  ads

  • no demand characteristics
  • behaviour is natural -> high internal validity

  disads

  • less ethical -> no consent.
• Overt observation


  Watch + record behaviour with participant's knowledge and consent.
• Ads + Disads : overt

  ads

  • ethically acceptable

  disads

  • risk of demand characteristic
  • lower internal validity
• Participant observation

  Researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour is being observed.
• Ads + Disads : participant

  ads

  • increase insight into the participants => may increase external validity.

  disads

  • researcher may lose objectivity.
• Non-participant observation

  Researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour is being observed.
• Ads + Disads : non-participant

  ads

  • researcher remains objective

  disads

  • may be too far removed from participants
• Behavioural categories

  Target behaviour is broken down into components that are observable and measurable. Need to be clear and unambiguous to ensure there is no confusion between observers.
• Event sampling

  Counting the number of times a behaviour occurs in the target group.

  Useful when behaviour is infrequent.

  Doesn't work if behaviour is too complex.
• Time sampling

  Recording behaviour in a pre-established time frame.

  Effective in reducing the number of observations needed to be made.

  Might be unrepresentative of observation as a whole.
• Inter-observer reliability

  Multiple observers take part in the study.

  Compare their data and discuss differences/interpretations.