part 4

• What was Magic Bullets?

  researchers began to find ways of killing germs inside the body without harming healthy human tissue. This idea was called a 'magic bullet'.
• Who was Paul Ehrlich and what did he develop?

  -Ehrlich investigated chemicals that would kill syphilis germs without harming human cells. He tested various substances by infecting rabbits with syphilis, then giving them a chemical to see whether the rabbit would be cured without the medication making them ill.

  -After successful human trials, Salvarsan 606 was made available. It was the first magic bullet - a chemical that could cure people of syphilis. (1909)
• What was the Significance of Magic Bullets?

  -In 1935, Gerhard Domagk discovered Prontosil - an antibacterial drug - which became the second magic bullet. Prontosil killed a type of bacteria known as streptococcal, which could cause life-threatening infections.

  -The discovery of magic bullets by Ehrlich's research team also led to work on finding natural substances that could target infections in the body. This work led to the discovery and development of penicillin.
• Who was Alexander Fleming and what did he do?

  -Alexander Fleming was a Scottish doctor who worked for most of his career at St Mary's Hospital in London. In 1928, he went on holiday while researching Staphylococcus bacteria. When he tidied his laboratory after his holiday, he discovered that a mould had grown on one of his Petri dishes. The bacteria around the mould had gone.

  -When he investigated the mould, Fleming realised it was Penicillium fungi. He researched further and discovered that it killed Staphylococcus bacteria. He wrote about his findings in a medical journal. (concluded it was a natural antiseptic and a few regarded his work as a major breakthrough)
• What was the Effect of WW2 on antibiotics?

  -When World War Two broke out, Florey and Chain travelled to America and were given $3 million in funding by the US government. They found a way to grow and mass produce purified penicillin. The US government paid for enough penicillin to be produced that every American soldier injured on D-Day could be given penicillin.

  -After World War Two, new methods were developed. These meant people could routinely be given antibiotics to deal with infection.
• Who was Florey and Chain and what did they develop on?

  -Howard Florey and Ernst Chain were researchers at the University of Oxford. In 1935, they used Fleming's work as a basis for trying to purify penicillin so it could be given as a medicine. By 1941, they had managed to achieve this and were ready for a human trial.
• Who discovered DNA and what was it's effect?

  Rosalind Franklin was an English researcher and an expert in the use of X-rays. During the 1950s, she used X-rays to take images of DNA. In 1953, Francis Crick (a British researcher) and James Watson (an American geneticist) built on the earlier work done by Franklin. They were able to discover the double helix structure of DNA. They wrote about their findings in the medical journal Nature.

  -The discovery of DNA's structure was significant in helping researchers to understand the causes of some diseases.
• What are some examples of modern surgery?

  -In 1967, Christiaan Barnard, a South African cardiac surgeon, carried out the world's first heart transplant.

  -In 2005, a partial face transplant was completed for the first time in France. In 2010, the first full face transplant was carried out in Spain.

  -Laser surgery has a wide range of uses, including eye surgery, cancer treatments and control of bleeding.

  -Keyhole surgery This reduces the risk of infection and speeds up recovery times.
• What are some examples of Modern Treatment?

  -The use of in vitro fertilisation (IVF) led to the birth of Louise Brown in England in 1978.

  -New vaccines have been developed. For example, the HPV (human papillomavirus) vaccine is now routinely offered to young people in Britain. This reduces their chance of developing certain cancers.
• What is Mainstream Medicine?

  In mainstream medicine, treatment and care are provided by a trained doctor or nurse. This usually relies on using scientific methods to diagnose and treat patients. Most treatments and care provided by the NHS would be described as mainstream medicine.
• What are some examples Alternative Medicines now?

  acupuncture - using needles inserted into specific parts of the body to help with pain relief

  
  

  yoga - exercises and movements that are believed to help improve mental health and improve strength and flexibility

  
  

  hypnotherapy - using relaxation and focusing of thoughts to support people with mental health challenges or help them change their behaviour - for example, to help them stop smoking

  
  

  herbal remedies - people take herbs to help with a range of medical issues, including mental health challenges, pain or a low immune system
• What is Antibiotic Resistance?

  -patients not fully completing a course of antibiotics

  -overuse of antibiotics

  -use of antibiotics in some farming
• Impact of WW1: francis derwent wood

  Francis Derwent Wood was a sculptor. He worked in hospitals in England treating injured soldiers. He designed and made lifelike facial masks for soldiers who had suffered severe facial injuries. This helped them to regain confidence, supported their mental health and aided their reintegration into normal life.
• Impact of WW1: Blood transfusions

  Blood transfusions - Since Karl Landsteiner had discovered blood groups in 1901, blood transfusions had been possible. However, blood could not be stored. During World War One, sodium citrate was added to packages of blood. This stopped it from clotting straight away and meant blood could be stored for a short period of time.
• Impact of WW1: James Edward Hanger and prosthetic Limbs

  -He travelled to Europe to observe the effects of trench warfare - so he could design better prosthetics. As a result of this trip, Hanger's newly established company received contracts with both England and France during and after World War One to supply artificial limbs to Allied soldiers.
• Reasons for the liberal reforms (charles booth)

  Charles Booth

  
  

  After the 1875 Public Health Act and other reforms, there was a feeling public health problems had been dealt with. However, a social researcher and reformer, named Charles Booth, conducted a piece of research in 1889. This showed that 35 per cent of London's population lived in 'absolute poverty'.
• 1867 reform act


  The 1867 Reform Act had given the vote to more working-class men. In the 1900 general election, the Labour Party entered candidates for the first time and won two seats in Parliament. In 1906, they increased the number of seats they held to 29.

  
  

  The Liberal Party won the election in 1906 but wanted to ensure the Labour Party didn't gain more seats in the future. The Liberal Party saw their own reforms as a way of maintaining the support of working-class voters.
• Impact of the Second Boer War?

  The Second Boer War had also shown there was a problem with public health. In 1899, at the start of the war, one in three of the men who volunteered to fight were unfit to be recruited for health reasons. The government needed to take action to improve the health of the people.
• What was the Content of liberal reforms?

  -In 1906, free school meals were introduced to improve the health of children.

  -In 1907, schools began medical inspections of their pupils.

  -In 1908, the Old Age Pensions Act was introduced. Eligible people, who were also over 70 years old with an annual income of less than 21 pounds per year, received a pension of five shillings per week. People who earned over 21 pounds per year or were married received a smaller amount. Anyone who earned over 31 pounds and 10 shillings per year received no pension.

  -in 1909, the Labour Exchanges Act was brought in. Labour exchanges were similar to job centres today. Their aim was to match up employers and employees

  -in 1911, the National Insurance Act came in. This set up a system where workers had a sum of money deducted from their wages to pay for health care and sick pay if needed
• Impact of WW2: The Guinea Pig Club and Archibald McIndoe

  Archibald McIndoe was born in New Zealand and was a cousin of Harold Gillies.

  During World War Two, he worked with soldiers who had suffered severe facial injuries, especially from burns. McIndoe treated the physical injuries. He also supported soldiers who had difficulties with their mental health as a result of severe disfigurement from physical injuries.

  McIndoe's patients formed a support network known as the Guinea Pig Club.

  The club organised social events. It also helped recovering soldiers adapt to civilian life and learn to live with their injuries. The club became well known and was visited by the war-time prime minister, Winston Churchill.
• Impact of WW2: Blood transfusions

  Charles Drew was an American surgeon. He came up with new methods to store and transport blood. When World War Two began, Drew was put in charge of a campaign called Blood for Britain. This involved US civilians donating blood, which was transported to Britain using Drew's techniques. It was then used to treat injured British civilians and soldiers in blood transfusions.
• Impact of WW2: Evacuation

  During World War Two, evacuation led to 3 million children moving to the countryside, so they were safe from the bombing of towns and cities. Many people in rural areas were shocked at the levels of poverty they witnessed in some of the evacuated urban children. This led to support for social reform and a commitment to help families in need of assistance. In turn, this helped to pave the way to the foundation of the National Health Service (NHS) in 1948.
• Impact of WW2: Penicllin

  During World War Two, penicillin was mass produced for the first time. Howard Florey and Ernst Chain's success in mass producing the first antibiotic meant US soldiers injured at D-Day were all given penicillin to reduce the risk of infection.
• Aneurin Bevan


  After World War Two, Winston Churchill lost the general election in 1945 to Clement Attlee and the Labour Party. Aneurin Bevan then became Minister of Health. He organised the founding of the NHS based on the principles of the Beveridge Report.
• The Beveridge report


  In 1942, William Beveridge, a Liberal politician and social reformer, wrote a report called Social Insurance and Allied Services. It became known as the Beveridge Report. He recommended that the government should act to deal with what he called the 'five giants
• Why did people oppose the NHS?

  -The General Medical Council, which represented doctors, was concerned that doctors would be employees of the government. They worried that doctors would lose their independence and receive less pay.

  -Some politicians argued that the cost of the NHS would be too great and taxpayers should not have to pay.
• Birth of the NHS

  The NHS started treating patients in 1948. The first patient was 13-year-old Sylvia Diggory, who was treated at Trafford General Hospital.

  For the first time, everyone in the country could receive free health care, regardless of income. This included eye tests, hearing tests, prescriptions and hospital care.

  To ensure the NHS could be fully staffed, nurses and domestic workers from the Caribbean and Ireland were employed and encouraged to come and work in hospitals in the UK. During the 1960s, NHS employees were also recruited from South Asia and Africa, as well as from the Caribbean
• Introduction of prescription charges

  Bevan strongly believed that the NHS should provide free health care for all, regardless of people's income. The initial budget for the health service was £437 million per year - equivalent to around £15 billion in 2021. This was a significant cost, particularly at a time when Britain was heavily in debt following World War Two.

  Pressure on the NHS budget meant tough decisions needed to be made. In 1951, Bevan resigned from the government when charges for prescriptions were introduced to pay for the cost of the Korean War.
• The NHS today and what it encourages?

  New medicines and treatments are constantly being developed. The NHS runs public health campaigns to try to encourage people to lead healthier lives. For example, it encourages people to:

  
  

  -stop smoking

  -eat healthily

  -practise safe sex

  -get vaccinated (eg the flu vaccines)

  The NHS faces ongoing challenges regarding the cost of new treatments. Decisions have to be made about which medications and services can be paid for by the NHS and which cannot.
• Who was the first person to receive penicllin and what happened?

  Albert Alexander was the first person to receive penicillin, he was a policeman who had cut his cheek while gardening:

  -the wound had become infected

  -he was very ill in hospital

  -after receiving penicillin he regained consciousness and started to recover

  -there was not enough penicillin to continue treating him

  he became ill again and died
• How did WW1 impact X-rays?

  X-rays - Marie Curie and her husband Pierre's scientific research was crucial in the development of X-rays for use in surgery. The X-ray machine was invented in 1895 before the start of World War One. During World War One, mobile X-ray units were available. Marie Curie played a vital role in getting 200 X-ray units into field hospitals along with 20 mobile X-ray vehicles, which the French troops nicknamed petites Curies which translates to 'little Curies'. This meant surgeons could see what internal injuries a patient had, meaning surgery could be better planned and was safer.
• How did WW1 impact amputation?

  Amputation and the use of prosthetic limbs - The nature of injuries suffered in World War One meant thousands of soldiers had limbs amputated. New and more sophisticated artificial - prosthetic - limbs were designed. A company in London that made industrial and electric tools began to manufacture a new prosthetic leg made of metal. This was lighter and easier to manoeuvre.
• Reasons for liberal reforms ( seebohm rowntree?

  Seebohm Rowntree

  
  

  Seebohm Rowntree, who was also a philanthropist and social reformer, conducted an investigation in York in 1900. He found that people needed to be earning 21 shillings a week, equivalent to £125 in 2021, to stay out of poverty. He came up with the term 'poverty line' for people earning less than this amount
• What were the five giants in the beverdige report?

  idleness - caused by a lack of employment opportunities

  ignorance - caused by people lacking a good education

  disease - caused by unaffordable health care

  squalor - caused by poor-quality housing

  want - caused by poverty
• harold gillies and impact of WW1?

  in 1917 he set up a ward at Queen Mary's Hospital, Sidcup, in London, to treat patients with facial injuries.

  Gillies pioneered new skin graft techniques. In one technique, he moved a patch of skin on the face, called a pedicle. He left the veins attached to it, so it still had a blood supply and could successfully be attached to a different part of the face.
• Factors in twentieth-century medical developments

  technology-MRI and keyhole surgery

  war- governments invested in research, testing, and surgical techniques

  change in attitudes- governments shifted to helping and protecting the people they serve

  Government-investement

  communication-tv. media

  individual-fleming, florey and chain, rowntree, beveridge
• Impact of WW1: Harold Gillies


  developed skin grafting for soldiers