Grant

• Background

  question:Grant(4 marks)1.Outline what context dependent memory is2.Outline what effects context dependent memory3.Outline the effects of context dependent memory in students4.How this inspired Grant et al's researchContext dependent memory is the belief that if you encode and retrieve information in the same contextual environment with the same contextual information, your performance will be better.However, these effects on memory can change based on the types of test the learner is doing e.g. the change in context has more of a negative impact on memory when the task if recall and not recognition.Previous research has shown that students study in very different environments to where they are examined such as with background noise.Therefore, Grant wanted to show that context dependent memory could have a positive impact for students when they learn and recall in the same environment.
• Define


  RecallRemembering information with no prompts e.g exam questions
• Define

  RecognitionWhen you are given cues to prompt a response e.g multiple choice questions
• What was the

  aimforGrant'sresearch?•To test forcontext dependency effectscaused by thepresence or absence of noiseduring learning and retrieval of meaningful material.
• What was the

  research methodforGrant'sresearch?•This was alaboratory experimentusing anindependent measures design.
• What was the

  IVandDVforGrant'sresearchIV-whther the p read the two page article under silent or noise conditions and whether the p was tested under matched or mismatched conditions.DV-Their score on the recall and recognition tasks out of 26
• What was the

  sampleused and thesampling methodinGrant'sresearch?Sample- The39 participantswere agedmixture of men and womenand allacquaintances of the experimenters.

  Sampling method- They were recruited byopportunity samplingas eight members of a psychology laboratory class served as experimenters and each experimenter recruited five acquaintances to serve as participants.(1 participant’s results were omitted from the analyses.)
• The

  Procedure-Encoding Stage grant'sresearch (5)1.All participants wore a pair of headphonesto block out any external noise

  2.Participants in theNoisy encoding conditions had background sounds(cafeteria noise) playing through their headphones

  3.The participants in theSilent encoding conditions heard nothingthrough their headphones

  4.All participants were asked toread a meaningful article on Psychoneuroimmunology

  5.Once they had read the article, all participants had a 2 minute breakbefore the recall stage
• Procedure- Recall Stage Grant's

  research (3)-After the break, participants were asked to answer26 questions about the article they had just read.-16of the questions weremultiple choice (recognition)-10of the questions wereshorter answer questions (recall)
• Results- Mean % score out of 26 in

  Grant'sresearch (4)Silent/ silent -81%Noisy/ noisy -79%Silent/ Noisy-68%Noisy/ Silent-70%Performance was significantly better in matched conditions
• Conclusions


  forgrant'sstudy (3)·There are context-dependency effects for newly learned meaningful material regardless of whether a short-answer test or a multiple-choice test is used to assess learning.

  ·Studying and testing in the same environment leads to enhanced performance.

  ·Students are likely to perform better in exams if they study for them with a minimum of background noise because there was evidence for context-dependency suggests they are better off studying without background noise as it will not be present during actual testing.
• Strengths that

  Grant'sresearch is asnap shot studyPECP- A snapshot study allows forhigh controls over extraneousor confounding variables due to the fact that not a lot of time passes which could lead to loss of control.

  E- For example,all participants had the same time constraints, volume levels, same articleetc.

  C- Therefore, canestablish cause and effect between context dependent effects and memory recallincreasing theinternal validity.

  Other Strengths:-Reduced risk of participant attrition as tested on 2 occasions one after the other.

  -Quick comparisons between groups – matched and mismatched for conclusions.
• Weaknesses that

  Grant'sresearch is asnap shot studyPECP- A snapshot studycannot track the memory of the p’s over timeas it develops as only studied once

  E- For example,their memory of the article could improve over time due to a number of different factorse.g.age, experience, education.

  C- Therefore, the results areless usefulas an accurate representation of context dependent memory.

  Other weakness:Different groups being compared it does not take into accountindividual differencese.g. memory, preferred learning styles.
• What is a

  strengththatGrant'sresearch is alabexp?PECP- This is a lab experiment with high levels of control against extraneous and confounding variables.

  E-For example, all of the participants read the exact same article on psycho-immuniology to control for the difficulty of text not effecting their recall and recognition.

  C-Therefore, this increases the internal validity of the study, as Grant is ensuring that he is measuring context-dependency effects, allowing him to establish cause and effect.
• What is a

  weaknessthatGrant'sresearch is alabexp?PECP- A lab experiment lacks ecological validity as elements of the task were not true to real life.

  
  

  E- For example, it is very rare that students will learn or be tested with headphones on and whilst listening to artificial background noise.

  
  

  C-Therefore, these results limit in their generalisability to real students in schools, lowering the usefulness of Grant’s study.
• What are

  weaknessthatGrantstudy uses anindependent measures design?meant a higherrisk of individual differencesas different participants in different conditions. Individual differences could include memory capacity, preferred learning styles etc.Reduces internal validityas otherextraneous variablescould impact on results.
• What is a risk of p's being acquaintances of the researcher in Grant's study?

  risk of researcher bias
• What is a

  strengthabout thetype of datacollected inGrant'sstudy?PECP- The data collected wasquantitative, making iteasier to analyse and see patterns.

  E- For example, the mean score from both the MCQ and Short answer tests can be easilycompared between the 4 conditions to see who scored higher.

  C- Therefore, it iseasier to check for consistency in students recall and recognition scoreswhen in matching or mismatching conditions, increasing external reliability.

  Other strengths:-Scores on the short answer test (10) and the MCQ test (16). Strength as candraw easy comparisons between matched and mismatched groups.

  -Allows for easy replicationas can gain the same test scores again due toobjectivenumbers being collected.
• What is a weakness about the type of data collected in Grant's study?

  PECP- Lacks internal validity as no insight why p’s performed better when learning and test conditions are matched.

  E- For example, if the p’s had been asked if they found the test difficult or not and why e.g. because there was loud background noise when I was trying to do the test, it would give more

  C- This limits the usefulness of the research as we cannot draw effective practical applications as the results could be due to other study factors.
• Strength


  of thesampleinGrant'sstudy?PECP- The sample has amixture of men and womenanddifferent age ranges, meaning it isrepresentativeof various groups of people.

  E- For example, thereare both men and women and also an age range of 17-56, meaning thatcontext dependent memory can its effects are being tested on both genders and different ages.

  C- This means the results are moregeneralizableand are not just applicable to young students, increasing thepopulation validityand theusefulnessof the findings.
• Weakness of the sample in Grant's study?

  PECP- The sampleall consist of acquaintances of the 8 research partners, meaning they may showdemand characteristics or social desirability bias.

  E- for example,each of the 8 researchers were asked to select 5 people they knew to take part in the research into context dependent memory, meaning they may have already had an understanding of what the study was aiming to investigate and not shown natural behaviour.

  C- This maylimit the validityof the study as the sample may try harder at the tasks therefore not giving a representative view of context dependent memory.
• How does

  Grant'sstudy havehigh validity?PECP- As this was anIndependent measures design, there is areduced risk of order effects.

  E- For example,all participants only took part in one conditione.g. silent-silent so they hadno time to practice the testor more time to memorise the article. They also had less time to guess the aim soreducing demand characteristics.

  C- Therefore, theinternal validity is strongeras Grant can ensure he is measuring what he set out to measure, and that no other variables are affecting the results.

  Other strengths:-Lab exp sohigh controls over extraneous variables– same questions in the same order etc – canestablish cause and effectbetween context dependent cues and memory retrieval.

  -Quant data soobjectiveand not open to interpretation.
• How does

  Grant'sstudy havelow validity?PECP- As this is anIndependent measures designthere is a higherrisk of individual differences.

  E- For example, studentsknowledge on the subject prior to the experiment, their capacity for memorising meaningful information andIQmay all impact on their performance.

  C- Therefore, these factors mayimpact the internal validity, as Grant cannot ensure that it is the conditions of their environment affecting their performance on the tests and that it may be a number of other dispositional factors.Cannot properly establish cause and effect.

  Other weaknesses:-Experimenters used their acquaintances so could respond withdemand characteristicsand/orresearcher biasas they may unintentionally affect the results.

  -Quant data–lack of reasons or insightinto why p’s performed better in the matched conditions.
• How does

  Grant'sstudy havehigh reliability?PECP- This study ishigh in internal reliabilityas there arestandardised proceduresso can bereplicatedeasily

  E- For example, much of the procedure was standardised to ensure that all participants had the same experience e.g.same article, background noise, questionsetc.

  C- Therefore, Grant couldeasily replicate this study to check for consistency of resultsandincrease the scientific natureof his results into context dependent memory.

  Other Strength:-High external reliabilityas collectedquant data(score out of 26 from the short answer questions and the MCQ) so results could bechecked for consistency if replicated.
• How does

  Grant'sresearch havelow reliability?PECP- Due to thelow numbers of participants, there is aninability to check for the consistency of large numbersof results,reducing the external reliability.

  E- For example, there are only39 participantsin the study meaning thatconsistency between their test scores out of 26 will not show a highly reliable picture of the consistency of test scores.

  C- Thislimits the reliabilityof the results as wedo not know how they would compare to larger samples.
• How is

  Grant'sstudyethical?PECP- Grant adheres to ethical guidelines and ensures that all of his participants are fullydebriefedof the intent of the study at the end.

  E- For example, after the participants completed the recall and recognition tasks, they were each debriefed and the full purpose of the study was explained to them

  C- This is a strength as it adheres to the ethical principle ofresponsibilitywhich willencourage future participants for research into context dependent memory
• How is

  Grant'sstudyunethical?PECP- On the other hand, Grantdeceivesthe participants as they areunaware they are taking part in a study on memory.

  E- for example, each participant was told that theircomprehension of the article was being tested, not their memory.

  C- This violates the guidelines ofrespect, meaning participantsmay have felt embarrassed and lied to and therefore not wanted their data to be used.
• How does

  Grant'sstudy illustrate theindividualdebatePEC+weaknessP- Grant addresses the individual debate as there aremany individual differenceswithin the results.

  E- for example, thesilent silent condition scored a mean percentage of 81%, not 100%, meaning that context dependent memory was not successful for all of the participants in this matched condition.

  C-strengthbecause it illustrates hownot all individuals are impacted in the same way by their situation

  Weaknessas we have tocreate practical applications which cater for all different types of peopleto help improve their memory
• How does

  Grant'sstudy illustrate thesituationaldebatePEC+weaknessP- situational factors as thecontextual information within the participants’ situation/environment is having a major impact on their memory recall

  E- For example, Grant found that when participants learn in asilent environment and then recall in a noisy environment, that situational change causes a significant drop in memory recall, as their mean percentage score out of 26 was only 68%

  C- This is a strength as wecan create environmental changes to peoples situation in order for their context dependent memory to improve.

  Weakness becausewe cannot change all aspects of our situation all of the time, and this may negatively impact our memorye.g. noise
• How does

  Grant'sstudy illustrate thereductionistdebatePEC+weaknessP- Grant can be considered reductionist as themain focus of the study is on how situational factorsand the contextual information around us impacts our memory,largely ignoring individual differences.

  E- for example, Grant found thatif the contextual information within your situation during encoding and retrieval is similar, especially if it is silent, then your memory recall will be much better, as the silent silent group had a mean score of 81%.However, he doesn’t consider their individual differences, such as intelligence, ignoring dispositional factors.

  C- strength- morescientificas acausal relationship can be established

  W- lacksusefulnessas we donot understand the interaction between nature and nurture and memory
• How does

  Grant'sstudy illustrate theholismdebatePEC+weaknessP- However, Grant could be considered holistic as helooks as different types of context, both matched and mismatched.

  E- For example,the participants either learned the article in silence or in noise and then retrieved the information in a matched or mismatched environment, allowing for an insight into how both matched and mismatched contextual information can impact ones memory.

  C- Strength as it allows for amore useful comparison of results between matched and mismatched conditions

  W-lacks specific insight into one aspectof context dependent memory
• How does

  Grant'sstudy illustrate thefree willdebatePECP- Grant addresses the free will debate,as none of the results are 100%, meaning that the participants must have exercised their free will to some extent when answering the questions.

  E- For example, the silent silent group scored a mean percentage of 81% when doing the 2 tests out of 26. However, as this is not 100%,some of the participants must have exercised their free will and even thought the contextual information was matched during encoding and retrieval,they took control over their tests and did either better or worse than the other people in that group.

  C- This is astrength as people can exercise their free will in order to improve their memory, by ensuring that theirsituationis amendedand that the contextual information is the same during encoding and retrieval.
• How does

  Grant'sstudy illustrate thedeterminismdebatePECP- On the other hand, Grant also addresses the determinism debate, as he illustrateshow the contextual information which is out of the participant’s control, is pre determining their memory recall.

  E- For example, the participant’s in thenoisy conditions during encoding has no control over the background noise that they were hearing, background talking and plates moving etc. Then,if they were asked to retrieve this information in a silent environment, they would perform significantly worse than if they were asked to recall in a matched noisy environment, something that they had no control over e.g. noisy silent scored a mean of70% yet noisy noisy was 79%.

  C- This is a weakness, as forthose who cannot control their environments due to large amounts of background noise when learning meaningful material, they may be stigmatised
• How is

  Grant'sstudy useful?Highly useful study due to thegeneralizable practical applications to schools and students in order to enhance their knowledge of the most appropriate and effective environments to study in. practical applications can be implemented in schools such asmaking sure students are revising in an environment that will match their exam halle.g. silent with very little contextual distractions
• How can Grant's study be considered to have limited usefulness?

  Limited usefulness as thesample is very small and the tasks and setting are only applicable to students and a school environment.No further informationas to how context dependent memory could work in other situationse.g. crime scenes
• How is Grant's study scientific

  PECP- This study is highly scientific as it adheres to many principles of science such as the use ofobjective quantitative measures.

  E- once the participants had encoded the meaningful material, they wereasked to answer 10 short answer recall questions and 16 multiple choice recognition questions to see what they had remembered, each was given a score out of 26. This allowed Grant toobjectively compare the mean percentage of each group, finding that the silent silent group scored the highest at 81%, whereas silent noisy the lowest at 68%.

  C- This is a great strength for the study, as it increases the levels of external reliability, meaning consistency can be checked between the groupsand morescientific conclusions can be gathered on context dependent memory.
• How is

  Grant'sstudyunscientificPECP- On the other hand, the study may be said tolack control, as each participant was allowed to read the article for as long as they needed, meaning this could have become anextraneous variable.

  E- For example, some participants may have read the article in more depth or multiple times compared to other participants, meaning that their test scorewill not be impacted by whether they are in a mismatched or matched condition, but by the fact they read the meaningful material for longer.

  C-This is a weakness of the study, as itlimits the establishment of cause and effectas the independent variable of the 4 different conditions has not been properly isolated,reducing the scientific nature and internal validity of the study.