Psychology - Attachment

• Attachment


  an emotional relationship between two people in which each seeks closeness and feels more secure when in the presence of the attachment figure
• Why do we form attachments?

  infants are physically helpless, they have an innate ability to seek interactions with other individuals. These interactions offer short term security, in the long term the infants first relationship acts as a template for later relationships, gives them a model of how to behave
• Proximity


  infants seek proximity- being close to the caregiver at all times
• Distress


  both the infant and caregiver feel distressed when separated
• Secure-base behaviour


  the infant is generally always aware of the caregiver and makes frequent contact, the caregiver acts as a safe base
• Reciprocity


  babies move in rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns as people do when they have a conversation. Reciprocity means two way or something that it mutual, infant and caregiver are both active contributors in the interaction and are responding to each others
• Interactional Synchrony


  relates to the timing and pattern of interaction, the infant and caregiver mirror each others behaviour. The interaction is co-ordinated and can include infant and caregiver mirroring each others behaviour and emotion
• Meltzoff and Moore Study

  Aim: the investigate interactions between caregiver and infant using controlled observations

  
  

  Method: selected 4 different stimuli (3 faces and a gesture) and observed the behaviour of infants response - watched and recorded on tape (seen in real time, frame by frame and slo mo). the videos then judged by independent observers who had knowledge of what the infants just saw, had to note all head and tongue movements. (mouth opening, tongue protrusion, termination of mouth/tongue), a dummy was put in front of the infants mouth during display to prevent any response, following the display the dummy was removed and expression filmed

  
  

  Findings: each observer scored the tapes twice- all scores greater than 0.92

  
  

  Conclusion: there is an association between the infant behaviour and that of the adult model
• Evaluation of Meltzoff and Moore

  +research support= Isabella et al- observed 30 mothers with their infants assessing their level of synchrony and attachment. The results show the better the synchrony the better quality attachment they had= importance of interactional synchrony in forming a good quality attachment

  +reliability= high reliability due to inter-rater/observer reliability- as all the tapes were watched twice by independent observers and all scores higher than 0.92= highly reliable findings

  - purpose of interactional synchrony= no explanation was found- Feldman said that we cannot understand the purpose of these interactions, these could mean nothing and have no overall purpose= it is ambiguous
• Shaffer and Emerson Study

  Aim: to assess whether there was a pattern of attachment formation that was common to all infants and identify distinct stages

  
  

  Procedure: longitudinal study on 60 newborns and mothers from w/c area in Glasglow, monthly interviews in first year and another at 18 months- studied in their own home + interactions observed and carers interviewed - evidence for attachment= separation anxiety and stranger anxiety

  
  

  Results: different aspects of attachment developed at different ages, strongly attached infants had mothers who responded to their needs quickly - more opportunity for attachment, weakly attached infants had mothers who responded less quickly - less opporunity for attachment

  
  

  Conclusion: There is a pattern of attachment common to all infants which is biologically controlled. Attachments were most likely to be formed with those who responded accurately to the signals NOT who they spent most time with= sensitive responsiveness

  multiple attachments are normal and similar quality- opposes Bowlby's idea that attachments are a hierarchy of a prime and minor attachments
• Schaffer and Emerson's Stages of attachment- Stage 1

  ASOCIAL- (0-8 weeks): smiling, crying, no directed behaviour towards a particular figure
• Schaffer and Emerson's Stages of attachment- Stage 2

  INDISCRIMINATE ATTACHMENT- (2-7 months): attention sought from different people and recognise familiar faces
• Schaffer and Emerson's Stages of attachment- Stage 3

  SPECIFIC ATTACHMENTS- (7-12 months): strong attachments to one individual, shows separation anxiety
• Schaffer and Emerson's Stages of attachment- Stage 4

  MULTIPLE ATTACHMENTS- (1 year +): attachments are developed to other people, uses familiar adults as a secure base
• Evaluation of Schaffer and Emerson

  +longitudinal study= high internal validity

  +triangulation= a variety of research methods to produce findings- high in reliability

  +ecological validity- observed in their own homes in everyday situations- gave findings face validity and high in mundane realism

  -self report data= unreliable as parents would want to appear as if they have a good attachment to their child (social desirability bias)

  -era dependent= carried out in 60's - outdated as society and the ways children were raised have changed due to changes in position of different genders

  -contradicting evidence= Van Ijzendorm and Kroonenberg saw multiple attachments from birth as normal

  -limited sample= all w/c mothers from Glasglow- cannot generalise to population as not representative
• Multiple attachments


  attachment is extended to other adults who regularly spend time with the child (grandparents, siblings)
• Schaffer and Emerson on multiple attachments

  - first attachment formed at 7 months

  - approx one month later secondary attachments are formed

  - additional attachments are formed in the months following the 4th stage (observed that 31% of infants displayed 5 or more attachments at 18 months)

  
  

  Evaluation:

  - inconsistent findings as fathers can be primary attachments, mothers and fathers have distinct roles and behave differently
• Grossman on multiple attachments

  -longitudinal study on 44 families comparing the roles of mothers and fathers contribution to attachment at 6, 10 and 16

  -quality of mothers attachment was related to the quality of attachment during adolescence

  attachment with fathers was not- fathers play quality related to the attachment in adolescence

  
  

  Evaluation:

  - children who grow up in single parent households or same sex do not develop any differently suggesting fathers secondary role is not important
• Field on multiple attachments

  - fathers can be nurturing attachments figures, key to attachment is rate of responsiveness and not the gender of the parent

  
  

  Evaluation:

  - cultural gender roles= linked to womens higher level of oestrogen- more nurturing= women could be biologically predisposed to become the primary attachment figure
• Use of animal studies

  -used to look at the early formation of bonds between non-human parents and their offspring

  -this is of interest because attachment-like behaviour is common to a range of species and so animal studies can help us understand attachment in humans
• Ethology


  scientific and objective study of animal behaviour usually with a focus on behaviour under natural conditions and viewing behaviour an an evolutionary adaptive trait
• Imprinting


  a rapid learning process by which a newborn or very young animal establishes a behaviour pattern of recognition and attraction towards other animals of its own kind as well as to specific individuals of its species such as its parents or to a substitute for these
• Critical Period


  a specific stage in animal and human development during which certain types of behaviour normally are shaped and molded for life
• Sexual Imprinting


  the idea that an animal starts developing sexual preferences based on the species they are imprinted on rather than their own species if different
• Lorenz's study


  Aim: investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where the youngsters form and follow an attachment to the first large moving object they meet

  
  

  Method: used goslings split into 2 groups, one hatched naturally and the other in an incubator, behaviour following was recorded. Lorenz marked all goslings and placed them under a box, box removed and behaviour recorded again

  
  

  Findings: after birth the naturally hatched followed their mother and the incubators followed Lorenz, when released from the box the naturally born went to their mother and the incubator born went to lorenz = no bond with mother which was irreversible, takes place in a brief period of 4-24hrs after birth which is the critical period. the incubator hatched imprinted on humans= try and mate wiht humans

  
  

  Conclusion: imprinting is a form of attachment exhibited mainly by birds
• Evaluation of Lorenz


  +his findings on imprinting have influenced our understanding on human attachments

  +Gulton et al= research support- found that chickens imprinted on yellow gloves would try to mate with them as adults

  -generalised findings of birds to humans- difference in species

  - not a permanent idea- if mating would not work they would mate with others of their own species
• Harlow's study


  Aim: to test learning theory by comparing attachment in baby monkeys given a wire surrogate mother producing milk with those given a soft toweling mother producing no milk

  
  

  Procedure: 16 monkeys used, 4 conditions

  -wire monkey with milk and towel with no milk

  -wire monkey with no milk and towel with milk

  -wire with milk

  -towel with milk

  they monkeys were frightened to test which mother they preferred during stress and a larger cage was used to test the monkeys level of exploration

  
  

  Findings: preferred contact with toweling mother regardless if she produced milk- would stretch to wire to get milk while holding onto towel

  monkeys with only wire mother had diarrhoea a sign of stress

  when frightened would cling to towel mother when she was available

  in larger cage, monkeys with towel mothers explored more and visited their mother more often

  
  

  Conclusion: monkeys have an innate unlearned need for contact comfort= attachment concerns emotional security more than food
• Evaluation of Harlow


  +ethical issues are justified as it gives us an insight into attachment and shows us the importance of emotional care

  +profound effect on mother infant relations- attachment develops through contact comfort

  +shows the importance of early relationships for later social development including the ability to hold down adult relations and successfully rear children

  +helps social workers understand risk factors in child neglect and abuse so they can intervene (Practical application)

  
  

  -confounding variables- the two stimulus objects varied in another way than just being covered in cloth or not- heads were different

  -ethical issues: psychological harm later on with developing attachments

  -caused a state of anxiety in female monkeys- implications when they became parents as they would harm their children
• Learning theories


  behaviourists suggest that all babies are born a blank slate- all behaviour is learnt
• Classical Conditioning


  refers to association, a new born cries because it is hungry and the parent will respond with milk, after crying a few more times and being fed by the parent, the child will associate the parent with food
• Process of classical conditioning

  
• Operant conditioning


  refers to learning via reward- a new born will cry for hunger and the parent will respond with milk- positive reinforcement by being fed
• Process of operant conditioning

  -mother rewards baby through feeding- associates the mother with the reward and repeats any action that brings her close= food brings the feeling of pleasure (reward)

  -food is the primary reinforcer- by removing discomfort it reinforces the behaviour

  -food only comes with the mother so the mother is the secondary reinforcer even without food, the mother is associated with comfort and brings feelings of pleasure

  -the baby will repeat any action which brings the mother close
• Evaluation of learning theory

  +supporting evidence from Pavlov's Dogs and Skinner's Rats

  -reductionist- simplifies human behaviour to responding - other factors involved

  -Schaffer and Emerson- attachment not dependent on who fed or clothed the baby it was dependent on who was with the child and most responsive

  -ignores reciprocity and interactional synchrony

  -counter evidence from other animal studies eg Harlow and Lorenz
• Evolution


  natural selection of behavioural and physical characteristics which support the survival of species

  we have adapted to form attachments in order to survive
• Maternal deprivation


  if failed to form an attachment with the mother the child may experience emotional maladjustment in the future
• Adaptive


  attachments are adaptive and give our species an 'adaptive advantage' making us more likely to survive
• Social releasers


  behaviour the child does to attract the attention of an adult
• Critical Period/ Sensitive Period

  when attachment is needed to form within 3 months or up to 2 years
• Monotrophy


  attachment with one particular caregiver- this is different and more important, the more time spent with the primary attachment figure the better