Ethological explanations

• There is supporting evidence for ritualistic aggression being innate and adaptive from studies on humans

  E: Ritualistic aggression prevents conflicts escalating into dangerous physical aggression. In the Yanomamo people of South America, chest pounding and club fighting settles conflicts before more extreme forms of aggression develop (Chagnon 1992). In Inuit Eskimos, song duels are used to settle grudges and disputes (Hoebel 1967)

  C: The findings from aggression in humans can be extrapolated to explain animal aggression. Ritualistic aggression is linked to survival and dominance.
• There is contradictory evidence suggesting animals engage in the killing of their own species

  E: During a study on chimpanzees in Tanzania, male chimps from one community systematically slaughtered all members of another group. The attacks appeared to be coordinated and premeditated. The attacks continued despite signals of appeasement and defencelessness which did not inhibit the aggression (Goodall 2010)

  C: This challenges the idea that most animal aggression is ritualistic for survival purposes
• Fixed action patterns may not be completely innate behaviour

  E: Environmental factors such as learning and experience can influence aggressive behaviour patterns in animals. The term 'fixed action pattern' has now been replaced with 'modal action pattern', indicating that there are differences among individuals within the same species regarding the aggressive behaviour displayed.

  C: Aggression in animals is not completely linked to survival, and it can be reduced through training.