operant conditioning

• refers to the formation of new voluntary behaviour as a response of a consequence
• reinforcement is the central feature of operant conditioning
• reinforcement encourages the repetition of the desired behaviour
• positive reinforcement


  something desired is given in response to a behaviour, to encourage it
• negative reinforcement 


  something undesired is taken away
• punishment is different to reinforcement because it discourages behaviour
• positive punishment 


  something undesired given as punishment for unwanted behaviour
• negative punishment


  removal of something nice as punishment
• contingency

  what is going to affect the being has to relate sufficiently to the behaviour so that there is a clear link between them
• contiguity 


  must not be a time lapse between the reward/punishment and the behaviour
• primary reinforcement


  the reward is a basic need
• secondary reinforcement


  the reward is something that can satisfy a basic need
• interval-fixed:

  a fixed time for the reward -> schedule results in more behaviours as the time for the reward increases
• interval-variable:

  a varying time for the reward -> behaviours are reasonably steady as it is not known when the consequences will happen
• ratio-fixed:

  the reward or punishment is set to a number -> high number of behaviours up until reward is given
• ratio-variable:

  a reward is given randomly with regard to the number of behaviours
• srength of operant conditioning


  objective mesaures and careful controls used when researching, scientific. For example, Skinner used isolated animals in cages to ensure all variables were controlled so cause and effect between the IV and DV could be established
• weakness of animal research in operant conditioning

  due to differences between animals and humans like a less complex cerebral cortex which has a role in problem solving, findings cannot be generalised to humans accurately
• research to support from Thorndike


  Thorndike found that he could positively reinforce a cat in a cage to lift a latch, supports the ideas that complex behaviours can be shaped and that positive reinforcement is a thing
• weakness of operant conditioning

  lack of valdiity, studies of operant isolate behaviours to investigate them scientifically which means reducing a complex behaviour down such as learning into a simpler behaviour so the results are not true to real life