Parasocial relationships

• Basis of parasocial relationships?

  • The term “para” means “resembling” so parasocial relationships are those which are similar to normal relationships but lack the reciprocal element.
  • The fan usually dedicates lots of emotional energy, commitment and time to the “relationship”. 
• Who came up with the stages of parasocial relationships?

  • McCutcheon devised a questionnaire called the celebrity attitude scale to measure these relationships.
  • This was used in Maltby et al (2006). They identified 3 levels of parasocial relationships describing attitude and behaviours of the individual. 
• What is the entertainment social stage?

  • This is the least intense level of celebrity worship.
  • They are viewed as sources of entertainment and social interaction. For example, friends discussing what the actors of Marvel did from a magazine.
• What is the intense-personal stage?

  • Intermediate level where there is a greater personal involvement with a celebrity.
  • A fan of Johnny Depp may have frequent obsessive thoughts and feelings about him. 
• What is the borderline-pathological stage?

  • This is the strongest level of celebrity worshipping featuring uncontrollable fantasies and extreme behaviours.
  • These may include spending a large sum of money on a celebrity related item or performing an illegal act for the celebrity.
  • This is seen as way too far and could become a much more serious problem like stalking.
• Basis of absorption- addition model?

  • McCutcheon et al (2002) argued that people pursue these relationships because of deficits within their life.
  • They may have poor self-identity, lack of fulfillment or poor psychological adjustment.
  • This allows them to escape from reality or find fulfillment that are void in their normal relationships.
• What is the absorption-addiction model linked to?

  • The model is linked to the 3 stages of the celebrity attitude scale.
  • Most fans stay at stage 1 but those with a poor psychological adjustment may go into stage 2 or even 3, absorbing themselves into the celebrity’s life to gain a stronger self-identity.
  • This could be caused by a traumatic or stressful event, which links in with poorer psychological health and strength of the parasocial relationship. 
• 1st component of the absorption-addiction model?

  • absorption
  • Seeking fulfillment in celebrity worship motivates the individual to focus on the celebrity.
  • They then become preoccupied with them and identify with them.
• 2nd component of the absorption-addiction model?

  • Addiction: Just as with an addiction to a drug, the person needs to sustain their commitment to celebrity by feeling stronger and close involvement with the celebrity.
  • This may lead to extreme behaviours and delusional thinking.
  • You stalk them because you believe that they want to reciprocate your feelings but their manager is stopping you from doing so.
• Supporting study for the absorption-addiction model?

  • Maltby et al (2003) investigated parasocial relationship and personality through the eysenck personality questionnaire.
  • Entertainment-social level is linked with extraversion (literally the opposite).
  • Intense-personal is linked with neuroticism, which is anxiety related.
  • Borderline pathological level was linked to the psychotic personality type.
  • These findings support that higher levels of parasocial relationship are correlated with poor psychological functioning.
• Basis of attachment theory?

  • According to this approach, parasocial relationships originate from the early interactions between caregiver and infants. 
  • Bowlby’s attachment theory says that early difficulties may lack emotional troubles later in life.
  • The child develops an internal working mode, a template for how to interact with others based on their early interactions.
  • The continuity hypothesis argues that these influence us later on in life. 
  • Those with insecure-resistant attachment type as adults are more likely to form para-social relationships than secure attachment types. 
• Ainsworth et al relation with parasocial relationships?

  • Ainsworth identified to attachment types with unhealthy emotional development:
  • Insecure resistant - most likely to form parasocial relationships as adults. This is because they need to have unfulfilled needs met but in a relationship with no threat of rejection, break-up or disappointment.
  • Insecure-avoidant - not likely to form parasocial relationships, they prefer to avoid pain and rejection of relationships altogether whether they are social or parasocial
• Supporting study for the attachment theory?

  • Cole and leets (1999) - 115 students completed the parasocial scale and two attachment style questionnaires.
  • They found the willingness to form a parasocial relationship was related to their attachment beliefs.
  • Insecure-resistant types were the most likely to form parasocial bonds.
  • Secures were in the middle.
  • Avoidant types were the least likely to form these relationships 
• Reductionist nature of the attachment theory?

  • Attachment theory reduces PSR to being caused by having an insecure resistant attachment type.
  • It ignores other factor sthat may cause PSR like the absorption-addiction model which would argue that PSR is caused by poor psychological functioning.
  • The attachment theory oversimplifies PSR’s
• negative methodological evaluation for both theories? (1)

  • Most research uses self-report measures to collect data like online questionnaires.
  • A problem is that as questions about parasocial relationships and psychological functioning are sensitive topics p’s respond in a way to frame themselves in a positive light.
  • This is called social desirability bias.
  • Therefore, the research lacks validity. 
• negative methodological issue for both theories (2)

  • Most research into parasocial relationships is correlational between celebrity and psychological functioning.
  • However, cause and effect cannot be inferred. It could be that forming a parasocial relationship forms your attachment type/psychological functioning and viceversa.
  • To overcome this, you would need to use longitudinal research with before and after research but this is lacking.
• Positive evaluation regarding cross-cultural validity?

  • Research studies have identified a tendency for some people to form parasocial relationships with Harry Potter, a fictional character.
  • Schmid and Klimmt (2011) reported that the tendency is not cultural specific. Using an online questionnaire, they found similar levels of parasocial attachment to Harry Potter in an individualistic culture (Germany) and a collectivist culture (Mexico).
  • It suggests that research has cross-cultural validity as there are cultural similarities in parasocial relationships.