Kant

• Copernican Revolution: space time and causality are not 'out there' to be discovered. It is the way our mind organises experience
• Cannot know the world in itself, only know how it appears to us
• Minds are key to understanding the world
• only good will can be regarded as good without clarification or reservation
• Where empirical evidence is concerned we can never hav absolute certainty (straight stick may appear bent in water)
• Kant's moral reasoning is normative ethic-like. It is concerned with how we should act/ what principles we should follow
• The good will is autonomous and good without reservation
• We are all aware of having a sense of moral obligation
• pure practical reason is reason that chooses actions because they are good in themselves
• pure reason is aware of the compulsion of the moral 'ought' : a sense of moral obligation, irrespective of the consequences
• Kant believed it was possible to give a systematic account of our moral duties. Can be applied universally and is not circumstantial
• His theory is deontological, so is based on our duty. Duty is always a matter of conscious choice
• unqualified obligation is what 'ought' to be done. Rules bind us to our duties
• His theory has teleological aspects; it doesn't mean that we should do duty for duty's sake whatever the consequences
• consequences have to be worked through before you can tell whether principle conforms to the categorical imperative
• After you have reasoned what you 'ought' to do, you should seek your duty
• You are not acting moral if you do what you enjoy; potential enjoyment is irrelevant to the morality of an action
• Morality of an action does not rely on results or inclinations
• To have a 'good will' is not a natural gift, it is a chosen act. Aim is not to be happy but be worthy of being happy
• The Categorical Imperative is an absolute, unconditional moral command. An ought that does not need qualification. Their good is intrinsic and can lead us to universal maxims
• Maxims are general guidelines or principles of actions
• First formulation is universalisability:

  Act according to that maxim whereby at the same time will that is should become a universal law
• Second formulation is the practical imperative:

  Act in a way that you always treat humanity...never simply as a mean but always at the same time as an end
• Third formulation is the Kingdom of Ends:

  Act as though a legislating member in the universal kingdom of ends
• Problem of radical evil is despite rationality of the categorical imperative, human existence contains lots of moral evil
• Kant argued we have a tendency to radical evil. It comes about when we focus on the maxim of self-interest
• Radical evil is when we subordinate moral law to our own self interest
• The hypothetical imperative is a conditional imperative. It is instrumental; done to get something good out of it
• The hypothetical imperative is motivated by self interest. It can never lead to commands everyone ought to obey

  'If A, then B'
• The summum bonum is the highest or supreme good. Perfect happiness and fulfilment
• The summum bonum is a reward for being virtuous as this person possess the good will
• We can't achieve the summum bonum in this life; concept of it is evidence for God's existence. God exists to gurantee it
• We have to will the highest good. Sense of 'ought' implies we can do our moral duty
• Summum Bonum is the joining of virtue and happiness. Happiness is an optional bonus not an aim
• The three postulates of practical reason are Freedom, God and Immortality
• Freedom of the will: freedom is a necessary assumption at the core of morality. Know a prior we are free as if we weren't, morality makes no sense
• By deciding to act and taking it in line with your duty, you presuppose freedom (Freedom, postulate of reason)
• God and immortality 1:

  • God cannot command moral laws, they come from reason and good will
  • Nevertheless, feel the compulsion of the moral ought
  • 'ought implies can'
• God and immortality 2:

  • assume universe is fair and will reward with happiness (SB)
  • Not achievable in this life. Suggests immortality
  • Only God can grant this
• Prima facie duties were suggested by W.D Ross