Pathology

• What is the main focus of this lecture on respiratory pathology?

  Understanding respiratory system anatomy and diseases
• What should students be able to explain by the end of the lecture?

  The role of the respiratory system in homeostasis
• What are the key components of the upper respiratory tract?

  Nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx
• What are the key components of the lower respiratory tract?

  Trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs, alveoli
• What is the primary function of the respiratory system?

  Facilitates gas exchange (Oxygen in, Carbon dioxide out)
• How does the respiratory system contribute to acid-base balance?


  By regulating carbon dioxide levels in the blood
• What is the process of ventilation?

  Movement of air into and out of the lungs
• What drives the process of ventilation?

  Pressure differences between atmosphere and alveoli
• What muscles control ventilation?

  Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
• What is diffusion in the context of respiration?

  Exchange of gases across alveolar-capillary membrane
• What factors influence gas diffusion?

  Partial pressure gradients, surface area, membrane thickness
• What is perfusion in the respiratory system?

  Movement of oxygenated blood to tissues
• What is a common cause of respiratory disease related to ventilation and perfusion?

  Ventilation-perfusion (V/Q) mismatch
• How is oxygen primarily transported in the blood?

  98% binds to haemoglobin in red blood cells
• What does the oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve explain?

  How oxygen is loaded and released in tissues
• How is carbon dioxide primarily transported in the blood?

  70% as bicarbonate via carbonic anhydrase
• What regulates breathing?

  Respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata and pons
• What do chemoreceptors respond to in the respiratory system?

  Changes in pH, CO2, and O2 levels
• Why is oxygen delivery essential for the body?

  It is crucial for cellular respiration and ATP production
• What can low oxygen levels lead to?

  Cellular injury and organ dysfunction
• What is the consequence of carbon dioxide accumulation?

  Leads to respiratory acidosis or compensatory mechanisms
• How does the respiratory system maintain acid-base balance?

  By collaborating with the renal system to regulate pH
• What happens during respiratory compensation for acidosis?

  Increased ventilation removes CO2, correcting acidosis
• What are the physical barriers in the respiratory system's defence mechanisms?

  Nose hairs and mucus trap particulates
• What is the role of the ciliary escalator?

  Transports trapped debris upwards for expulsion
• How do alveolar macrophages contribute to respiratory defence?

  They engulf pathogens and debris
• How does the respiratory system help with thermoregulation?

  Regulates body temperature through heat exchange
• What is hypoxaemia?

  Low blood oxygen caused by reduced oxygenation
• What can hypercapnia lead to?

  Respiratory acidosis characterized by confusion
• What is Kussmaul breathing?

  Hyperventilation compensating for metabolic acidosis
• How does asthma affect ventilation?

  Airway inflammation and bronchoconstriction impair ventilation
• What are the key pathological processes in respiratory diseases?

  Obstruction, infection, inflammation, neoplasia, vascular disorders
• What are common symptoms of respiratory diseases?

  Dyspnoea, cough, chest pain, haemoptysis, cyanosis
• What is the first step in the diagnostic approach for respiratory diseases?

  History and physical examination
• What imaging studies are used in respiratory disease evaluation?

  Chest X-ray and CT scans
• What do pulmonary function tests (PFTs) evaluate?

  Obstructive vs restrictive patterns
• What laboratory investigations are important in respiratory disease diagnosis?

  Arterial blood gases (ABG) and sputum analysis
• What is the age and smoking history of the case study patient?

  55 years old with 30-pack-year smoking history
• What symptoms does the case study patient present with?

  Chronic cough, dyspnoea, and fatigue
• What physical examination findings are noted in the case study patient?

  Wheezing and cyanosis